上外高级英文写作教程复习整理

写作填空题ExpositionOnthebasisofcontrollingpurposewetraditionallydivideallproseintothreekinds:narration,description,andexposition.Expositioniswritingthatexplains.Ifthewriterintendstotellushowsomethinglooks,tore-createthethinginwords,wemaycallitdescription.Anarrativearrangesitsmaterialintime.Descriptionmostoftenorganizesinspace.Expositionorganizesitssubjectbylogic.Wefindthatparagraphsofexpositioncontaintwodifferentkindsofstatements.Thefirst-ageneral,ratherabstractstatement-iscalledthetopicsentence.Theexpositorywriter,therefore,usesthecommonmethodsoflogicandthinking:hedevelopshismaterialbyofferingexamplesasevidence,bycomparingandcontrasting,bymakinganalogies,byrestating,bygivingreasons,byclassifyinganddividinghissubject,byshowingcauseandeffect,bydefining,byarguingfrompremisetoconclusion.DefinitionDefinitionisinfactaformofexpositorywriting.Adefinitionistheefforttodistinguishanentityfromallotherthingsforthepurposeofbeingabletorecognizeitorinsomewaytounderstandit.Methodsofdefinition1.Analysis.Thetypeconsistsofplacingawordinalargeclasscalledthegenusandthendifferentiatingthewordfromothermembersofthatclass.Thismethod,asoldasAristotle,resultsinthedictionarykindofdefinition.2.Synthesis.Thisformofdefinitionrelatesthething-to-be-definedtosomethingalreadyfamiliartothereaderorlistener.Itoftenrevealsthething-to-be-definedaspartofsomelargerwhole.3.NegativeDefinition.Whichhelpstodefineathingbymakingclearwhatitisnot.4.Exemplification.Oftenappearingasanaidtodefinitionbyanalysisorbysynthesisisdefinitionbyexample.5.Synonyms.Almostasfamiliarasdefinitionbyexampleisdefinitionbysynonyms.Typesofdefinition1.ConsensualDefinition2.StipulativeDefinition3.NormativeDefinitionJudgmentJudgment,requiresthewritertolookatbothsidesofanissue,tofindoutwhatevidenceexistsandpresentitclearly,andfinallytodrawaconclusion.Inargumentpersuasionisthemainpurpose.Thewriterofargumentmustperforcetakesides,beattorneyeitherfortheplaintifforforthedefense.Thewriterofjudgmentismorelikeareferee.Hemustlistentowhatcanbesaidbothforandagainst,andthenhemustdecide-asobjectivelyandasintelligentlyashecan-wherethetruthlies.Goodjudgmentwritingrequiresmorethanfacilitywithwords.Onemustbeginbylearningwhathecanaboutthematterinhand.Secondly,thewriterofjudgmentmustpresentthefactsclearlyandincoherentorder.Finally,sincefactsaloneareoftennotenough,thewriterneedstobeabletodrawtheproperinferences.ArgumentTheessenceoftheargumentisreason,andreasonmayworkintwoways:bydeductionandbyinduction.Thefirstarguesfromgeneralpremisetoparticularconclusion;thesecondfromparticularfacttobroadconclusion.Deductiveargumentationisusuallycastintheformofalogicalsyllogism.Atitssimplestasyllogismcontainstwopremisesandaninferencethatnecessarilyfollowsfromthem.Ifthemajorpremiseandtheminorpremisearetrue,theinference,orconclusionThestudentwhowishestoarguewellshouldconsult1)agoodtextbook,2)masteratleasttherudimentsoflogic,3)andtrainhimselftodetectthecommonfallacies.Wemayconclude:1)thatitmustbeginfromtruepremises,2)thatitmustderiveitsconclusionsfromthesepremisesaccordingtotherulesofinference.Likethesyllogism,inductionwillbefallaciouswhenitfailstoobservecertainrules,whichmaybecalledthelawsofevidence.Evidencemustbeaccurate,relevantandcomplete.Allevidencemustobservetheserules;theevidenceitselfmaytakedifferentforms.Threearemostfrequent:commonknowledge,specificexamples,statisticaldata.