英语词汇学2

2EnglishVocabulary:---AHistoricalPerspective2.1Classificationoflanguages:1.TypologicalClassification(类型分类法)Syntheticlanguage(综合语)showstherelationofwordsbyinflectionAnalyticlanguage(分析语)indicatestherelationofwordsinasentencebywordorder2.GeneticClassification(谱系分类法)Sino-Tibetan(藏汉语系),Indo-European.(印欧语系),Semito-Hamitic（闪含语系),Bantu（班图语系),Uralic（乌拉尔语语系),Altaic（阿尔泰语系）,Malayo-Polynesian（马来-波利尼西亚语系）,Indian（印第安语系）CaucasianFamily（高加索语系）,Austro-AsiaticFamily(南亚语系)etc.语系（Family），语族（Sub-family），语支（Branch），分支（Sub-branch）但大多时候人们用Branch代表语族，这是简略说法。TheWorldLanguagesItisestimatedthatthereareabout5000languagesallovertheworld,whichcanbegroupedintoabout300languagefamilies,suchasSino-TibetanFamily,Indo-EuropeanFamily,AustronesianFamily,AltaicFamily,andsoon.ChineseisamemberintheSino-TibetanFamily,whileEnglishisamemberintheIndo-EuropeanFamily.TheIndo-EuropeanFamilyTheIndo-EuropeanFamilyhostsmostlanguagesofEurope,theNearEast,andIndia.LinguistshavedividedtheIndo-Europeanlanguagesintoseveralgroups,orbranches.Familyvs.BranchTheonlydifferencebetweenabranchandafamilyisthatabranch’sproto-languagehasanidentifiedancestor:theancestorofProto-SiniticwasProto-Sino-Tibetan,butwedon’tknowwhattheancestorofProto-Sino-Tibetanis.Indo-Europeanfamily:Indo-Iraniangroup(印伊语族):Persian(波斯语),Sanskrit(梵文),Hindi(印地语).Urdu(乌尔都语),Bengali(孟加拉语的)Armenian（亚美尼亚语族):ArmenianSlavic（斯拉夫语族）:Russian,polishHellenic（希腊语族）:ModernGreekItalic（意大利语族）:Latin,Italian,French,Spanish,Portuguese,RomanianCeltic（凯尔特语族）:Gaelic(盖尔语),Welsh,Briton(不列颠)Albanian（阿尔巴尼语族）:ModernAlbanianGermanic（日耳曼语族）:English,German,Dutch,Yiddish（意第绪语）,theScandinavianlanguages（斯堪的纳维亚语）Indo-EuropeanBranchesSirWilliamJones(Denning,K.et.al,2007:23)Groupsofrelatedlanguageshaveacommonancestor.WerefertotheircommonancestorlanguagesbyusingtheProto-prefix:Proto-ItalicProto-CelticProto-HellenicAbranch’sproto-languagehasanidentifiedancestor:theancestorofProto-ItalicwasProto-Indo-European,butwedon’tknowwhattheancestorofProto-Indo-Europeanwas.Proto-Indo-EuropeanTheGermanicBranchThebranchofIndo-EuropeanthatincludesEnglishiscalledtheGermanicgroup.Proto-GermanicwasprobablyspokeninnorthernGermanyandsouthernScandinavia.Proto-GermanicdevelopedintonotonlyEnglish,butalsoseveralotherlanguageswearefamiliarwith.TheGermanicBranchSomeGermanictribesmovedeastward,intowhatisnowRomaniaandUkraine,anddevelopedthelanguagebranchknownasEastGermanic.ThemostimportantlanguageinthisgroupwasGothic.AllspeakersofEastGermaniclanguageseventuallyabandonedtheminfavorofotherlanguages,sotheEastGermanicbranchisnowextinct.GermanicGermanicWestGermanicNorthGermanicEastGermanicEnglishSwedishGothicFrisianDanishVandalGermanNorwegianBurgundianYiddishIcelandicDutchAfrikaansTheNorthGermanicbranchincludesVikingNorse,whichdevelopedintoOldNorseandeventuallyintomodernScandinavianlanguagessuchasIcelandic,Norwegian,Swedish,andDanish.NumeralsinIndo-EuropeanEnglishGothicLatinGreekSanskritonetwothreefourfivesixseveneightninetenainstwaiTrijafidworfimfsaihssibunahtauniuntaihununusduotresquattuorquinquesexseptemoctonovembedecemheisduotreistettarespenteheksheptaoktoenneadekaekasdvatrayascatvaraspancasatsaptaastanavadasaTheSino-TibetanFamily(汉藏语系）TheSino-TibetanFamilyincludestwobranches:TheTibeto-Burmanbranch（藏缅语族）TheSiniticbranch（汉语族）TaiBranch（壮侗语族）Miao-YaoBranch（苗瑶语族）Thesebranchesaresimilartofamilies:groupsofrelatedlanguageshaveacommonancestor.Thereare300ormoreTibeto-Burmanlanguages.MostofthemarefoundinTibet,Nepal,Bhutan,northernandnortheasternIndia,andPakistan.Thereareaboutseventy-fiveTibeto-BurmanlanguagesinMyanmar(Burma),includingBurmese,Lahu,andtheKarenlanguages.AsizeablenumberarespokeninsouthernChina,includingLolo(Yi),Bai,Jingpo,andQiang.TheTibeto-BurmanBranchTheSiniticBranchSevendialectsYue(Cantonese)Kejia(alsocalledHakka)MinXiang(Hsiang)WuGan(Kan)Mandarin(官话）Someofthesegroupsareoftenreferredto,moreorlessloosely,byreferencetothebest-knownlanguageinthegroup,e.g.CantoneseforYue,HokkienforMin(ormoreprecisely,SouthernMin).Geographicaltermsarealsosometimesused,e.g.Taiwanese,Hainanese,Shanghainese.按使用人数来算，汉藏语系是仅次于印欧语系的第二大语系.Mandarin（普通话）ThestandardlanguageofChinaisMandarin(basedonthedialectofBeijing),alsoknownasModernStandardChineseorasPutonghua‘commonlanguage’,orasGuoyuinTaiwan.ManyChinesefromsouthernChinahavemigratedandsettledinSoutheastAsiaandinAustralia.AmongthemthemostwidelyspokenlanguageisprobablyCantonese.MandarinTheword“mandarin”hasatleastthreemeanings:ItcanrefertotheBeijingdialect（北京话）;onthisoccasion,itisalsocalledBeijingMandarin.Itcanalsorefertoalargenumberofdialectsofasub-branch（官话方言）oftheSiniticbranchofSino-Tibetanfamily.ItcanalsorefertoPutonghua（普通话）.MandarinEnglishisclassifiedasaTeutoniclanguage,thatis,aGermaniclanguage.Tobeexact,EnglishbelongstothelowWestGermanicbranchoftheIndo-Europeanfamily.That’stosay,EnglishbelongtothegroupoflanguagestowhichGerman,Dutch,Danish,SwedishandNorwegianalsobelong.ChinesebelongstotheSino-Tibetanfamily.2.2TheEnglishPeopleandtheEnglishLanguageOverviewofPeriodsofEarlyEnglishHistoryPre-History—1066A.D.1.Pre-Rom