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什么是结晶?在化学里面,热的饱和溶液冷却后,溶质以晶体的形式析出,这一过程叫结晶。溶质从溶液中析出的过程,可分为晶核生成(成核)和晶体生长两个阶段,两个阶段的推动力都是溶液的过饱和度(结晶溶液中溶质的浓度超过其饱和溶解度之值)。晶核的生成有三种形式:即初级均相成核、初级非均相成核及二次成核。在高过饱和度下,溶液自发地生成晶核的过程,称为初级均相成核;溶液在外来物(如大气中的微尘)的诱导下生成晶核的过程,称为初级非均相成核;而在含有溶质晶体的溶液中的成核过程,称为二次成核。二次成核也属于非均相成核过程,它是在晶体之间或晶体与其他固体(器壁、搅拌器等)碰撞时所产生的微小晶粒的诱导下发生的。艾青《给乌兰诺娃》诗:“不是天上的仙女,却是人间的女神,比梦更美,比幻想更动人--是劳动创造的结晶。”王朝闻《艺术创作有特殊规律》:“这是形象思维方法的卓越成就,是想像与思考的结晶。”由于中国工业文明较晚,大部分人对矿物结晶体不了解,上海市打造国际城市名片,已连续三年举办矿物结晶体展览,争取早日成为国际有影响力的大展,向美国图森矿物结晶展、德国慕尼黑矿物结晶展、法国圣玛丽矿物结晶展看齐。•supersaturation使饱和(现象)•deposition沉淀,沉淀物•evaporator(食物干燥)蒸发器•homologue同系物,同源染色体,相应物•acetanilide乙酰苯胺,退热冰•methylacetanilide甲基乙酰苯胺•metastable亚稳的,准稳的•mesh筛眼,每平方英寸的网孔(筛眼)数•motherliquor母液Crystallisationrankshighinthelistofindustrialprocessesdevotedtotheproductionofpurechemicals.结晶在化工过程中占据重要地位是由于生产纯化学品的需要。Apartfromthefactthatitsfinalproducthasanattractiveappearance,srystallisationfrequentlyprovestobethecheapestandsometimestheeasiestwayinwhichapuresubstancecanbeproducedfromanimpuresolution.除了制得的最终产品在外观上更具有吸引力的事实之外,结晶常被证明是最廉价、有时也是做简便的从不纯溶液中准备纯物质的方法。Conventionaldistillationtechniquescannotseparateefficientlyclose-boilingliquidsorthosethatfromazeotropes,yetcrystallizationmayoftenleadtotheircompleteseparation.传统的蒸馏技术不能有效的分离沸点接近的液体或共沸混合物,而结晶常常可以使它们完全分开。Thereisevidencethatthepetroleumindustryifnowturningitsattentiontocrystallisationtechniquestodealwithdifficultseparations.有证据表明石油工业已经将注意力转向结晶技术以堆肥困难的分离。Themethodsavailableforcrystallizationaremanyandvaried.适用于分离的方法很多也各不相同。Crystalscanbegrownfromtheliquidorthevaporphase,butinallcasesthestateofsupersaturationhasfirsttobeachieved.晶体可以在液体或气态中生成,但在所有的情况下都必须首先达到过饱和。Thewayinwhichsupersaturationisproduceddependsonthecharacteristicsofthecrystallizingsystem;somesolutesarereadilydepositedfromtheirsolutionsmerelybycooling,whileothershavetobeevaporatedtoamoreconcentratedform.达到过饱和的方法取决于晶体系的性质;有些溶液仅通过冷却就很容易从它们的溶液中沉淀,而另一些需要经过蒸发达到更高浓度。Incasesofveryhighsolubility,orforheat-labilesolutions,anothersubstancemayhavetobeaddedtothesystemtoreducethesolubilityofthesoluteinthesolvent.在溶解度很高的情况下,或热不稳定溶液,必须向系统中加入另一种物质以降低溶液中溶质的溶解度。Again,supersaturationoftheliquidorgaseousphasemaybecausedbythechemicalreactionoftwosubstances;oneofthereactionproductsisthenprecipitated.而且,可以通过两种物质的反应生成过饱和液体或气体,其中一种反应产物沉淀出来。Oneofthemostcommonwaysinwhichthesupersaturationofliquidcanbeachievedisbymeansofacoolingprocess.最常见的获得过饱和溶液的方法之一使通过冷却过程。Ifthesolubilityofthesoluteinthesolventdecreaseswithadecreaseintemperature,someofthesolutewillbedepositedoncooling;aslowcontrolledrateofcoolinginanagitatedsystemcanresultintheproductionofcrystalsofregularsize.如果溶液的溶解度随温度的降低而降低,冷却时一部分溶剂会沉淀出来,对搅拌充分的系统的缓慢的控制的冷却速度能够得到有规则尺寸的晶体。Thecrystalyieldmaybeslightlyincreasedifsomeofthesolventevaporatesduringthecoolingprocess.。Ifthesolubilitycharacteristicsofthesoluteinthesolventaresuchthatthereislittlechangewithareductionintemperature,someofthesolventmeyhavetobedeliberatelyevaporatedfromthesysteminordertoeffectthenecessarysupersaturationandcrystaldeposition.发部分溶剂以达到必要的过饱和以及晶体沉淀。Coolingandevaporativetechniquesarewidelyusedinindustrialcrystallization;themajorityofthesolutesolventsystemsofcommercialimportancecanbeprocessedbyoneorotherofthesemethods.冷却和蒸发技术广泛用于工业结晶。多数商业上重要的溶质溶液系统可以使用这些方法的一种或另一种。Descriptionsofmanyofthecoolingandevaporatingcrystalliserscommonlyencounteredaregivenlater.常用的冷却和蒸发结晶器将在后面给出。Theyieldfromacoolerorevaporatorcanbecalculatedfromthegeneralequation:冷却和蒸发的产率可由下式计算:WhereY=crystalyield(kg);W=weightofsolventpresentinitially(kg);V=weightofsolventlost,eitherdeliberatelyorunavoidably,byevaporation(kgperkgoforiginalsolvent);R=ratioofthemolecularweightsofsolvate(e.g.hydrate)andunsolvated(e.g.anhydrous)solute;andC1,C2=initialandfinalsolutionconcentrations,reapectively(kgofunsolvatedsoluteperkgofsolvent).其中Y=结晶产率(kg);W=初始溶剂质量(kg);V=失去溶剂的质量,蓄意的或不可避免的,通过蒸发(kg每kg初始溶剂);R=溶剂化(如水合物)与非溶剂化(如无水的)溶质的分子量比值;C1,C2=相应的初始和最终溶液浓度(kg非溶剂化溶质每kg溶剂)。Theyieldcalculatedfromtheaboveequationisthetheoreticalmaximumontheassumptions(a)thatC2referstotheequilibriumsaturationatthefinaltemperature,and(b)thatnosoluteislostwhenthecrystalsarewashedafterbeingseparatedfromthemotherliquor.由上式计算的产率是理论上的最大值,假设(a)C2表示最终温度下的平b)当从母液中分离出来的晶体洗涤时没有溶质损失。Duringacrystallizationoperationtheaccidentalproductionofnuclei(falsegrain)mustbeavoidedatallcosts;thesolutionmustneverbeallowedtobecomelabile.在结晶过程中必须不惜任何代价避免副产物(细糖晶粒)的产生;决不能让溶液变得不稳定。Thedeliberateadditionofcarefullyselectedseeds,however,ispermittedsolongasthedepositionofcrystallinemattertakesplaceonthesenucleionly.蓄意添加物,即精心选择的晶种,只要结晶沉淀仅在这些晶核上发生就是允许的。Theseedsshouldbedisperseduniformlythroughoutthesolutionbymeansofgentleagitation;andifthetemperatureiscarefullyregulated,considerablecontrolispossibleoverthefinalproductsize.通过缓缓搅拌是晶种在溶液中均匀分散,如果仔细控制温度,则对最终产品尺寸进行相当程度的控制是可能的。Deliberateseedingisfrequentlyemployedinindustrialcrystallizations;theactualweightofseedmaterialtobeaddeddependsonthesolutedeposition,thesizeoftheseedsandtheproduct:Ws=Wp(Ls3/Lp3)。精选的晶种经常用于工业结晶中;加入的晶种的精确重量取决于溶质沉淀、晶种粒度和产品粒度:WhereWsandWparetheweightsandLsandLparethemeanparticlesizesoftheseedandproduct,res
本文标题:结晶
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