石油工程专业外语电子教材

PartIBeforeDrilling11Lesson1HowItAllBeganOil.Petroleum.Blackgold.Formedunderthesurfaceoftheearthmillionsofyearsago,manhaslongbeenawareoftheexistenceofoil.Yet,ithasonlybeeninthelasthundredyearsorsothatmanhasfullyrealizeditsvalueandusefulness.Inhardlymorethanacentury,ourmodernsocietyhasbecometotallydependentuponthemenandwomenanddreamsandrealitiesofthepetroleumindustry.Todaywedependuponpetroleumproductsnotonlyfortransportation,heating,andgeneratingelectricity,butalsoforfertilizersandfabrics,plasticsandpantyhose.munitionsandmedicines,paintsandpesticides,andthousandsofotheritemswetakeforgrantedeveryday.Otherfuels,suchascoalanduranium,wouldnotbeavailablewithoutthedieselfuelandpetroleum-basedexplosivesrequiredtomine,transport,andprocessthem,orthebillionsofcubicfeetofnaturalgasnecessarytomanufacturethePortlandcementneededtobuildthegeneratingstationstheyfuel.Inshort,asthepastdecadehaspainfullytaughtus,theworld’seconomyisbasednotongoldorpoliticalphilosophies,butratheronthepriceofabarrelofcrude.Manfirstbecameacquaintedwithpetroleumthroughnatural“seeps,”orspotsontheearth’ssurfacewhereshallowdepositsofcrudeoil—andoftennaturalgas—oozedupwardsintopits,creeks,andmarshes,oralongbeachesandbays.Petroleum,asthe“rockoil”,wascalledbytheancients,isreferredtonotonlyintheBible,butalsoinman’searliestrecordedhistory.OilseepsandbitumenpitsfurnishedthepitchandasphaltusedinthemortarthatbuilttheTowerofBabel,thewallsofNinevah,andSolomon’stemple.Itwasfrom“slimepits”neartheDeadSea,thattheEgyptiansobtainedthebitumentheyusedtoembalmtheirdead.In3000B.C.theSumerianswereusingoil-burninglamps,apracticeadoptedinGreecearound250B.C.IntheEast,sometimeafter100B.C.,theChinesewerediggingwellshundredsoffeetdeeptoobtainsaltwaterfromwhichtheyextractedthesodiumchloridetoseasonandpreservetheirfood.Occasionallythesewellsalsoproducednaturalgas,whichtheChineselearnedtousenotonlyforheatingandcooking,butalsotopipethroughbambootubesandburntoheatthewellwatertohastenitsevaporation.PartIBeforeDrilling12By615A.D.,theJapanesewerediggingwellsnearly1,000ftdeepinattemptstoobtain“burningwater,”apracticewhichwasalsooccurringinBurmaandIndiaataboutthesametime.And,alongthebanksoftheCaspianSea,menwerediggingshallowwellsbyhandtoobtainoiltolighttheirlamps.Asmanfoundmoreandmoreofthisstrangesubstance,heslowlybegantolearnthatitcouldbeusedinmanyways.In671A.D.,KallinikosofByzantiuminventedaprimitivemissilewhichhecalledGreekFire.whichcarriedanincendiarypayloadcomposedofpetroleum,sulfur.resin,androcksalt,whichtheGreeksusedagainsttheirenemies,theArabs,duringthesiegeofConstantinople.TheGreeksalsousedpetroleuminwaratsea,pouringitonthewaterandignitingit,afearsomeweaponagainstwoodenships.Evenearlier,thelegionnairesofancientRomewonabattlebysettingoil-soakedpigsaflameanddrivingthemintotheranksoftheapproachingenemy.Gradually,theuseofpetroleumbegantospreadacrosspartsofAsiaandEurope.But,inorderforanynewindustrytocomeabout,threefactorsmustbepresent:awidelydemonstratedneedfortheproductprovided,areliableandeconomicalsourceofsupply,andanestablishedmarketpricethatwouldguaranteeareturnoninvestmentsufficienttoovercometherisksinherentinanynewventure.Thus,thetimewasnotyetrightforthebirthoftheworldwidepetroleumindustry,anditwouldnotbeuntiltheEuropeansventuredwestthatthesleepinggiantwouldbegintoawaken.1.1TheNewWorldWhenthefirstexplorersventuredintotheNewWorld,theyfoundpetroleummarshesaswellashugeasphaltpoolsinTrinidad,Venezuela,andlater,inCalifornia.AsmoreandmoreadventurersmadethelongvoyageacrosstheAtlantic,theylearnedtocometotheseplaces,beachtheirsea-wearyshipsandcaulktheirleakswithboiled-downpetroleumresidues.Notonlydidthissealthehulls,italsoprotectedthemagainstteredos,small,worm-likemarinemollusksthatinhabittropicalwatersandboreintowoodenships,destroyingthem.Intheyearstocome,thispracticeofshipcoatingwouldgrowintoanindustryofitsownandcreateoneofthefirsteconomicdemandsforpetroleumproducts.1.1.1LatinAmericaTheIndiansinwhatisnowMexico,calledthistarrysubstanceChapapote,whileinVenezuelaandotherpartsofSouthAmericaitwascalledMene.Thepre-Colombianpeoplesusedchapapoteormene—whichhadworkeditswaytotheearth’ssurface—asmedicineintheformoflinimentsandointments,tocoatfootwear,boats,androofing,asglue,forillumination.andasincense.In1579,CommanderMelcordeAlfaroSantaCruzPartIBeforeDrilling13hadwrittenhometoSpaindescribingthemanyusesofchapapoteinMexico,whichincludedtoothpasteandchewinggum.However.Venezuelamayhavebecometheworld’sfirstpetroleumexportingcountrywhenin1539,severalbarrelsofmenewereshippedtoSpain,apparentlyinresponsetoanurgentrequestfora“miracledrug”tocurethepainfulgoutafflictingEmperorCharlesⅤ.RumorshavingreachedtheroyalearsofthegreatmedicinalpowersattributedbytheIndianstoamysterioussubstancefoundaroundLakeMaricaibo.Thustheoriginsoftoday’spetroleumindustryarecloselyentwinedwiththehistoryofLatinAmerica,andmanyLatinnationshavecontributedtotheindustrythathaschangedtheworld.1.1.2NorthAmericaLater,asEuropeanspenetratedthenorthernportionofthehemisphere,theyfoundthattheIndiansfromCaliforniatowhatisnowPennsylvaniaandCanad