Aristotle’s-rhetorical-theory-of-persuasion

Aristotle’srhetoricaltheoryofpersuasionPlatoisdeartome,butdearerstillistruth.吾爱吾师，吾更爱真理••Plato:rhetoric-immoral,dangerous,andunworthyofseriousstudy•Aristotle:amoral•Rhetoricmaybedefinedasthefacultyofobservinginanygivencasetheavailablemeansofpersuasion.---Aristotle•Artisticproofs/meansofpersuasion:Logos,ethosandpathosEthos,Pathos,LogosHowdoyouappealtoanaudience?“诱之以利，动之以情，晓之以理，胁之以威”Ethos,Pathos,Logos•Wheneveryoureadanargumentyoumustaskyourself,“Isthispersuasive?Andifso,towhom?”•Thereareseveralwaystoappealtoanaudience.•Ethos,Pathos,Logos•TheseappealsareprevalentinalmostallargumentsLogos理性诉求•Logosissynonymouswithalogicalargument/AppealtoLogic(reasoning).•Doesyourmessagemakesense?•Isyourmessagebasedonfacts,statistics,andevidence?•Willyourcall-to-actionleadtothedesiredoutcomethatyoupromise?Logos1•Theoreticalorabstractlanguage•Literal(同一时期的同类事物对比)andhistoricalanalogies(过去与现在的类比)•Definitions•FactualDataandStatistics•Quotations/Citationsfromexpertsandauthorities•InformedOpinionsHowtoestablishlogosinyourwriting/speech•Logos:thelogicusedtosupportaclaim(inductionanddeduction);canalsobethefactualdataandstatistics,denotativemeanings/reasons,literal(同一时期的同类事物对比)andhistoricalanalogies(过去与现在的类比),definitions,quotations/citationsfromexpertsandauthoritiesusedtohelpsupporttheargument.Example:logosACME'snewdihydro-cesiumdetonationprocessBycombiningcesiumanddihydro-oxideinlaboratoryconditions,andcapturingthereleasedenergy,ACMEhaspromisedtoleadthewayintothefuture.Ourenergysourceisclean,safe,andpowerful,accordingtolaboratorytests.In20testsconductedoveraperiodof5years,nopollutantswerereleasedintotheatmosphere.Theworldwillsoonhaveanexcellentsourceofcleanenergy.ACMEiscurrentlyworkingtowardapatentonourprocess.Ourscientistsareexploringwaystousetheprocessincars,houses,airplanes,andalmostanythingelsethatneedspower.ACMEbatterieswillberefittedwithsmalldihydro-cesiumreactors.OncetheentireworldispoweredbyACME’sgenerators,wecanallrelaxandenjoyamucheasierlife.•Theenthymeme(rhetoricalsyllogism)andtheexamplearetheformsthatreasoningtakesinrhetoric.•Theenthymeme(修辞/省略三段论)istherhetoricalsyllogism,inwhichpartofthelogicalsequenceisleftunstated.•Syllogism三段论:Allcatsaremammals.Fluffyisacat.Therefore,fluffyisamammal.•1stexample:•Socratesismortalbecausehe'shuman.Thecompletesyllogismwouldbetheclassic:•Allhumansaremortal.(majorpremise-assumed)•Socratesishuman.(minorpremise-stated)•Therefore,Socratesismortal.(conclusion-stated)•2ndexample:Wecannottrustthisman,forhehasperjuredhimselfinthepast.•Inthisenthymeme,themajorpremiseofthecompletesyllogismismissing:•Thosewhoperjurethemselvescannotbetrusted.(Majorpremise-omitted)•Thismanhasperjuredhimselfinthepast.(Minorpremise-stated)•Thismanisnottobetrusted.(Conclusion-stated)Ethos人格/人品诉求•Beforeyoucanconvinceanaudiencetoacceptanythingyousay,theyhavetoacceptyouascredible.•Ethos-AppealtoMorals/Ethics/characterQuestions:•Whenyouwriteorspeak,youneedconsiderthefollowingquestions:•Doestheaudiencerespectyou?•Doestheaudiencebelieveyouareofgoodcharacter?•Doestheaudiencebelieveyouaregenerallytrustworthy?•Doestheaudiencebelieveyouareanauthorityonthisspeechtopic?•Keepinmindthatitisn’tenoughforyoutoknowthatyouareacrediblesource.(Thisisn’taboutyourconfidence,experience,orexpertise.)Youraudiencemustknowthis.Ethosisyourlevelofcredibilityasperceivedbyyouraudience.•wewillmeasuretheethosofaspeakerbyfourrelatedcharacteristics:•Trustworthiness(asperceivedbytheaudience)•Goodwill(totheaudience)•Authority(relativetotheaudience)•ReputationorExpertise(relativetothetopic)HowdoyouEstablishEthos?•Bymeansof:•languageappropriatetoaudienceandsubject,•appropriatechoiceofvocabulary,correctgrammar/style,•restrained,sincere,fairmindedpresentation,•rhetor’sexpertiseinthefield,pastgoodrecordorintegrity,andsoforth•Ethos:thespeaker's/writer’scredibility,goodreputation,goodwill,thespeaker's/author'sauthorityExample1:ethosIamahusband,afather,andataxpayer.I’veservedfaithfullyfor20yearsontheschoolboard.Ideserveyourvoteforcitycouncil.Example2Ethos•Whenatrusteddoctorgivesyouadvice,youmaynotunderstandallofthemedicalreasoningbehindtheadvice,butyounonethelessfollowthedirectionsbecauseyoubelievethatthedoctorknowswhathe/sheistalkingabout.Pathos情感诉求•Pathosisthequalityofapersuasivepresentationwhichappealstotheemotionsoftheaudience.•Doyourwordsevokefeelingsof…love?…sympathy?…fear?•Doyourvisualsevokefeelingsofcompassion?…envy?•Doesyourcharacterizationofthecompetitionevokefeelingsofhate?contempt?•Emotionalconnectioncanbecreatedinmanywaysbyaspeaker,perhapsmostnotablybystories.Thegoalofastory,anecdote,analogy,simile,andmetaphorisoftentolinkanaspectofourprimarymessagewithatriggeredemotionalresponsefromtheaudience.Pathos-AppealtoEmotions/emotionalappeal•Vividandconcretelanguage•Emotionallyloadedlanguage•Emotionalexamples•Narrativesofemotionalevents•Emotionaltone•FigurativelanguageAnti-SmokingAshtrayGraphicanti-smokingadsinUKAnotherimagefromthesameadcampaignshowsasetoflungsblackenedbytobacco.EffectsofEthos,Pathos,Logos•Logosevokesacognitive,rationalresponse•Ethosdemonstratesth