组织行为学02SciencePolicy

Ch2SciencePolicy06.10.02.doc06.08.02Chapter2.SciencePolicy:TheRationaleforPublicSupport1ByElizabethL.MaloneInthelasthalfofthetwentiethcentury,sciencehasenjoyedalongboom--unprecedentedprogress,widespreadandincreasingsupportfromgovernmentandindustry,andgenerallyfavorableattitudesfromthepublicatlarge.Policymakersandthepublichavecreditedbasicresearchwithlongerandhealthierhumanlives;hugeincreasesinagriculturalproduction;andimmenseimprovementsintransportation,energyproduction,andcommunications.Duringthistime,arationaleforpublicsupportofbasicresearchbecamefirmlyestablishedandelaborated.First,basicresearchis,accordingtotherationale,thefoundationfortechnologicaldevelopment,whichprovidesmilitaryandeconomicadvantagestocountriesthataretechnologicallyadvanced.Second,governmentsupportofscienceisnecessarybecausetheprivatesector,beingunabletorealizeindividualcompetitiveadvantagesfrombasicresearch,hasinsufficientmotivationtoundertakeit.Consequently,thegovernment’sinvestmentinbasicresearchisa“publicgood,”providingthebasisfornationalcompetitivenessinpoliticsandinmarkets,expansionofknowledge,andcontinuingimprovementinthequalityoflife.Atthesametime,adifferentfunctionofscientificresearchhasemerged–scienceasabaseofknowledgeuponwhichtobuildpolicy.Policy'sneedforsciencehasgeneratedwholesub-specialtiesofscience,eg.,toxicwastedisposal.Policiesonhealth,education,energy,theenvironment,etc.,nowrequirescientificfindingsandrisk-baseddecision-making.Sometimescharacterizedas“speakingtruthtopower,”thisfunctionofscientificresearchhasbroughtitmoreexplicitlyintothepoliticalarena.Whenresearchresultscanbeattachedtoaparticularpoliticalphilosophy,theareaofresearchthatproducedtheresults,andtheorganizationsthatsponsorit,canbelabeledaspartisanratherthanobjective.Almostalldisciplineshavesharedinscience’slongboom--butinrecentyearsthefederalgovernmenthasbeenreducingitsshareofinvestmentinsomeareasandoverall,whileincreasingsupportinotherareas.Questionsaboutthe“returnoninvestment”inbasicresearchhavebeenraised,theroleofindustryinbasicresearchhasresurfaced,theroleofgovernmentinfacilitatingthecommercializationoftechnologyemergingfrombasicresearchhasreceivedgreaterattention,andgovernmentshaveestablishedmethodstoevaluatetheperformanceofgovernment-fundedresearch.Inaddition,globalization,theendofthecoldwar,andburgeoninginternationalcollaborationsarecallingintoquestionthetraditionaljustificationsofnationalcompetitivenessandraisingissuesofcapacitybuilding.Inthiscontext,managersofpubliclyfundedscienceneedtounderstandthehistoricalbasesforgovernmentsupportandtherootissuesunderlyingthecurrentdebates.Sciencepolicyandtrendsinpublicfundingforsciencehavebeenshapedbydebateaboutthefunctionofscienceinsocietyandtheappropriatedivisionofresponsibilitybetweenthepublicandprivatesectorsfordirectingandsupportingscientificresearchanddevelopment.Beyondtheimmediateargumentsaboutwhatgetsfundedandatwhatlevelarequestionsaboutthenatureofscience,thejustificationforgovernmentfunding,andevaluatingsuchalong-termandinherentlyuncertainactivity.1Relatedchaptersinclude:Strategy;ChangeManagement;PerformanceAssessment;Competencies;OrganizationalAlliances;Leadership;Innovation;Creativity;ScientificEthics;CommunicatingScience.Ch2SciencePolicy06.10.02.doc206.08.02BriefHistoryandCurrentSituationDuringtheScientificRevolutioninthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,sciencewasconceptualizedasthehighestintellectualcallingofascholar,withscientist-scholarstakingonquestionsofphilosophicalandreligiousimportance,tryingtounderstandthefundamentallawsofnatureandsocietywiththeaimofimprovingpeopleandtheirworld.Sciencewasdefendedforitsintrinsicvalueandreflectionofhumanintellectandspiritofinquiry,onejustificationthatisstillused.Scientistswerelargelyself-funded,independentofgovernmentsupport.Governmentsquicklycametoseeadvantagesinscientificadvancesandalliedthemselveswithinvestigationsthatseemedinfluentialand/orlikelytoresultintangibleadvantagesofimprovementsinwarmaking,politicalcontrol,ormarketdomination.“Fromtheeighteenthcentury,mostscientistsbelievednotonlythatknowledgewouldincreasethroughthesupportofpoliticalpower,butthatpoliticalpoweritselfistiedtocontributionsfromscience”(Salomon1987).TheEnlightenmentfosteredacloserelationshipbetweenscienceandgovernment,withthebeliefthatprogressinsciencewouldensuretheprogressofhumanity.Thisrelationshipcontinuestoday.Stateshavebecomenearlyeverywherethemainpatronsofbasicresearch--particularlywhereprivatebenefitsarelowandpublicbenefitsarehigh.States,further,haveexercisedconsiderablecontroloverdetailedpublicallocationsforscience;definedtopicalresearchboundaries;steeredprivateinvestmentinscience,tosomeextentoranother;andregulateddegreesofscientificinterdependencewiththeoutsideworld.Stateshavereliedonscienceandtechnologytosecuretheirpolitical,economic,andstrategicviability(Solingen1994).InEurope,thescience-governmentalliancewasestablishedwellbeforethetwentiethcentury,butintheUnitedStateslaissez-faire,extendingthethemeofthefreemarket,wasanarticleoffaith.Eveninthelatterhalfofthetwentiethcentur