语用学预设.

Presupposition-triggers预设触发语Presupposition-triggersPresuppositionsseemtobetiedtoparticularwordsoraspectsofsurfacestructureingeneral.Weshallcallsuchpresupposition-generatinglinguisticitemspresupposition-triggers预设的触发语指能够引发预设产生的词语或特定结构。Karttunen收集了31种预设触发语，Levinson选择了其中13种归纳如下：（肯定和否定用/隔开；红色斜体表示预设触发语；表示预设）1.Definitedescriptions确指描述语主要指专有名词及特定的名词，引发存在性预设。(37)Johnsaw/didn’tseethemanwithtwoheadsthereexistsamanwithtwoheads2.Factiveverbs叙实性动词指那些反映宾语或宾语从句已经发生、成为事实的动词；起谓语作用的形容词,它们后面一般接that从句,反映已经发生过的事实；评论性的形容词和副词，往往预设说话人所持的观点或看法。(38)Martharegrets/doesn’tregretdrinkingJohn'shomebrewMarthadrankJohn'shomebrew(39)Frankensteinwas/wasn’tawarethatDraculawasthereDraculawasthere41)Itwasodd/itwasn’toddhowproudhewashewasproud(42)somefurtherfactivepredicates:know;besorrythat;beproudthat;beindifferentthat;begladthat;besadthat(40)Johnrealized/didn’trealizethathewasindebtJohnwasindebt3.Implicativeverbs含蓄性动词含蓄性动词指具有某种暗含意义的动词，如manage包含了“设法去做”和“做成”两个意义,forget包含“该做某事而实际上没有做”之意。其暗含意义就是它所触发的语句的预设。(43)Johnmanaged/didn’tmanagetoopenthedoorJohntriedtoopenthedoor(44)Johnforgot/didn’tforgettolockthedoorJohnoughttohavelocked,orintendedtolock,thedoor(45)somefurtherimplicativepredicates:XhappenedtoVXdidn’tplanorintendtoV;XavoidedVingXwasexpectedto,orusuallydid,oroughttoV,etc.4.Changeofstateverbs状态变化动词状态变化动词即表示位置变化或状态改变的动词，这类动词预设某物原处在某地或某物的前一种状态的存在。(46)Johnstopped/didn’tstopbeatinghiswifeJohnhadbeenbeatinghiswife(47)Joanbegan/didn’tbegintobeatherhusbandJoanhadn’tbeenbeatingherhusband(48)Kissingercontinued/didn’tcontinuetoruletheworldKissingerhadbeenrulingtheworld(49)somefurtherchangeofstateverbs:start;finish;carryon;cease;take(asinXtookYfromZYwasat/in/withZ);leave;enter;come;go;arrive;etc.5.Iteratives反复词语表示某个动作的反复或某种状态的延续,预设这个动作曾经发生过或这种状态曾经存在过。(50)Theflyingsaucercame/didn’tcomeagainTheflyingsaucercamebefore(51)Youcan’tgetgobstoppersanymoreYouoncecouldgetgobstoppers(52)Carterreturned/didn’treturntopowerCarterheldpowerbefore(53)furtheriteratives:anothertime;tocomeback;restore;repeat;forthenthtimeIteratives在广告中的应用妈妈再也不用担心我的学习。(步步高点读机)预设触发语“再也”的使用,预设了妈妈过去总是很担心孩子的学习。自从使用了步步高点读机之后,孩子的学习进步很大,妈妈再也不用为孩子的学习担心了。设想一下,有哪个家长不为孩子的学习担忧呢?这则广告对于那些总是为孩子的学习伤透脑筋的家长的吸引力毫无疑问是巨大的。6.Verbsofjudging判断动词判断动词表示主语对所谈论事情的态度(54)Agathaaccused/didn’taccuseIanofplagiarism(Agathathinks)plagiarism（剽窃）isbad(55)Iancriticized/didn’tcriticizeAgathaforrunningaway(Ianthinks)Agatharanaway7.Temporalclauses时间从句(56)BeforeStrawsonwasevenborn,Fregenoticed/didn’tnoticepresuppositionsStrawsonwasborn(57)WhileChomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics,therestofsocialsciencewas/wasn’tasleepChomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics(58)SinceChurchilldied,we’velacked/wehaven’tlackedaleaderChurchilldied(59)furthertemporalclauseconstructors:after;during;whenever;as(asinAsJohnwasgettingup,heslipped)8.Cleftsentences分裂句分裂句是以it为引导词的强调句型,其结构形式是:It+be的某种形式+强调部分+that/who-分句。利用这个结构,说话人可以强调主语、宾语、状语等,使之成为信息中心,而这个信息就是句子的预设。(60)Itwas/wasn’tHenrythatkissedRosiesomeonekissedRosie此外,“拟似分裂句”(pseudo-cleftconstruction)或称“伪分裂句”也起到预设的作用,其主语通常是what引导的名词性从句,主语补语部分构成了信息中心。(61)WhatJohnlost/didn’tlosewashiswalletJohnlostsomething9.Implicitcleftswithstressedconstituents含强调成分的隐性分裂句Theparticularpresuppositionsthatseemtoarisefromthetwocleftconstructionsseemalsotobetriggeredsimplybyheavystressonaconstituent.说话者在说话过程中,通过说话者的声音大小,语调的高低等,来强调句子的某一部分,这种强调手法与运用分裂句的强调效果是一样的。(62)Linguisticswas/wasn'tinventedbyCHOMSKY!someoneinventedlinguistics(cf.Itwas/wasn'tChomskythatinventedlinguistics)(63)Johndid/didn’tcompeteintheOLYMPICSJohndidcompetesomewhere(cf.Itwas/wasn’tintheOlympicsthatJohncompeted)10.Comparisonsandcontrasts比较和对照句比较和对照句主要是通过比较级结构或一些其它的比较手段来体现的。进行比较或对比必须有一个比较的基础,这个基础就是预设。Comparisonsandcontrastsmaybemarkedbystress(orbyotherprosodicmeans),byparticlesliketoo,back,inreturn,orbycomparativeconstructions:(64)MariannecalledAdolphamalechauvinist（大男子主义者）andthenHEinsultedHERForMariannetocal1Adolphamalechauvinistwouldbetoinsulthim(65)AdolphcalledMarianneaValkyrie（瓦尔基里北欧神话中的人物）andshecomplimentedhimback/inreturn/tootocallsomeone(oratleastMarianne)aValkyrieistocomplimentthem(66)Carolis/isn’tabetterlinguistthanBarbaraBarbaraisalinguist(67)Jimmyis/isn’tasunpredictablygaucheasBillyBil1yisunpredictablygaucheComparisonsandcontrasts在广告中的应用Let’smakethingsbetter.(PHILIPS)在这里,预设触发语“better”的使用预设飞利浦产品的品质原来就“good”。现在他们正努力使其产品“better”。这充分表明了飞利浦勇于拼搏、积极进取的精神11.Non-restrictiverelativeclauses非限定性关系分句（定语从句）就其与先行项的语义关系可分为限定性关系分句和非限定性关系分句两种。前者是对先行项的修饰和限制,是句子不可分割的部分(restrictiveasinOnlytheboyswhoaretallcanreachthecupboard);而后者和先行项的关系比较松散,仅仅是对先行项的补充说明(non-restrictiveasinHillary,whoclimbedEverestin1953,wasthegreatestexplorerofourday).。非限定性关系分句不受从句之外的主句动词否定的影响,也就是说,否定主句的动词不会改变从句的真实性,所以它具有预设的功能。(68)TheProto-Harrappans,whoflourished2800-2650B.C.,were/werenotgreattemplebuildersTheProto-Harrappansflourished2800-2650B.C.12.Counterfactualconditionals反事实条件句/非真实条件句非真实性条件句表达的是与事实相反的条件,预设这个虚假条件反面的存在,主要是指虚拟语气的条件句以及一些表示与事实相反的动词和结构。(69)IfHannibalhadonlyhadtwelvemoreelephants,theRomancelanguageswould/wouldnotthisdayexistHannibaldid