第三单元语言学笔记

3.1Whatisword?Wordisaunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.词是个表达单位，不管是在口语还是在书面语中，说母语的人对词有种普遍的直觉识别能力。3.1.1Threesensesof“word”“词”的三种含义aphysicaldefinableunit:是自然的有界限单位thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms是支配一组形式的共同因素。Wordisthecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms,aunitofvocabulary,alexicalitem,oralexeme.词是在一组形式之下的共同要素，是词汇的单位，是一个词条，或是一个词位。Lexicon:alistofallthewordsinalanguageassignedtovariouslexicalcategoriesandprovidedwithsemanticinterpretation.lexeme(词位):Aseparateunitofmeaning,usuallyintheformofaword(e.g.“doginthemanger”)Lexeme-----ispostulatedastheabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage,whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontexts.词位被假定为语言词汇系统中潜在于最小单位之下的抽象单位，而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的。e.g.boyboys;check,checks,checking,checked;write,writes,wrote,writing,written;fat,fatter,fattestboy,check,write,andfatarethelexemes.agrammaticalunit是一个语法单位。e.g.Itiskindofyou,MissHoe.Everywordplaysagrammaticalpartinthesentence.3.1.2Identificationofwords词的识别1.stability稳定性Wordsarethemoststableofalllinguisticunits,inrespectoftheirinternalstructure,thatis,theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordhavelittlepotentialforrearrangement,comparedwiththerelativepositionalmobilityoftheconstituentsofsentencesinthehierarchy.Butitisallrightforustorearrangetheconstituentsinasentencetoacertaindegree.所有语言单位中词是最稳定的，就其内部结构来说，跟句子层面成分相对的位置灵活性相比，复合词的组成成分一般不能重新调整次序。但是句子成分却可以做一定程度的重新排列。e.g.Thechairmanlookedattheaudience.主席看观众Theaudiencelookedatthechairman.观众看主席。2.Relativeuninterruptibility相对的连续性Byuninterruptibility,wemeannewelementsarenottobeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.Norisallowedtousepausesbetweenthepartsofaword.连续性，是指即使一个词由几个部分构成，新的成分也不能插进词的中间。各部分之间也不允许有停顿。3.Aminimumfreeform最小的自由形式ItwasfirstsuggestedbyLeonardBloomfield.Headvocatedtreatingsentenceas“themaximumfreeform”andword”theminimumfreeform”,wordbeingthesmallestunitthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutterance.由布龙菲尔德首先提出来。他提倡把句子看作“最大的自由形式”，把词看作“最小的自由形式”。词是能独立构成一个完整语句的最小的单位。3.1.3Classificationofwords词的分类1.Variablevs.invariablewords可变化词和不变词Wordscanbeclassifiedaccordingtotheirvariability.根据可变性可以对词进行分类。Invariablewords-----onecouldfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms;ontheotherhand,partofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant.Thus,eachorderedseriesconstitutesparadigm.关于可变化词，人们可以找到一系列整齐而有规则的词形，它们在语法上是不同的；另一方面，词的一部分相对保持不变。因此每一个整齐的系列构成一个集合。Invariablewords------refertothosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello.Theydonothaveinflectiveendings.不变词指since,when,seldom,through,hello这一类词。它们没有形态结尾。1.Grammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords语法词和词汇词Intermsofthemeaningexpressedbywords,theycanbeclassifiedintogrammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords.就表达的意义来说，词可以分为语法词和词汇词。Grammaticalwords/functionwords------thosewhichexpressgrammaticalmeanings,suchas,conjunctions,prepositions,articles,andpronouns,aregrammaticalwords.(表达语法意义的是语法词,如连词,介词,冠词,代词.)Lexicalwords/contentwords--------thosewhichhavelexicalmeanings,thatis,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs,relexicalwords.(具有词汇意义指物质,动作和性质的是词汇词,如名词,动词,形容词,副词.)Asthelexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguagewhilethegrammaticalonesservetolinkitsdifferentpartstogether,thelexicalwordsarealsoknownascontentwordsandgrammaticalonesfunctionwords.词汇词承载了语言的主要内容，而语法词是用来把不同的片段连接在一起的，所以词汇词又叫做实义词，语法词又叫做功能词。1.Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords封闭类词和开放类词Thedistinctionofgrammaticalwordsandlexicalwordsleadstodistinctionof“closed-class”wordsand“open-class”words.语法词和词汇词的区别导致了封闭词类和开放词类的区别。Closed-classword(封闭词类):------awordwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded,suchaspronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.(封闭词类的成员数目是确定的,有限的.新成员不会有规律地增加.例如代词,介词,连词,冠词等.)open-classword(开放类词):-------awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andmanyadverbs.(开放类词的成员数目原则上是无穷的,无限的.例如名词,动词,形容词和多数副词.)Whatareopenclasses?Whatareclosedclasses?InEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyare“open-classwords”,sincewecanregularlyaddnewlexicalentriestotheseclasses.Theothersyntacticcategoriesare,forthemostpart,closedclasses,orclosed-classwords.Thenumberofthemishardlyalterable,iftheyarechangeableatall.1.Wordclass词类Classifywordseitherbyanalyzingthevariousgrammatical,semantic,andphonologicalpropertiesofthewordsinlanguage,orbygroupingthemintoclassesonthebasisofformalsimilaritiesinPARTOFSPEECHintraditionalgrammar.要划分词类，更现实的方法是分析词在语言中的不同的语法特征，语义特征和音系特征，或者根据形态变化和分布方面的形式相似形来给词分组。在传统语法中词类partofspeech是封闭的。Particles、Auxiliaries、Pro-form、Determiners助词，助动词、代词形式、限定词3.2Theformationofword词的形成MorphemeandMorphology语素和形态学Thesmallestcomponentsareknownasmorphemes.Buttheythemselvescannotfurtheranalyze.最小的成分叫语素。但是语素本身不能再作进一步分析。Morpheme----isthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.(就表达和内容之间的关系看,语素是最小的语言单位,不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇一样或语法意义.)Morphem