2016词汇题新版

1月9日第一篇英国工业革命之后的大萧条原文回顾：其他地方享受着工业革命带来成果时，英国人民却在水深火热之中。造成这种萧条的原因来自工业革命本身，联通的便利使得其它国家的农作物涌进欧洲，英国不得不降低粮食价格来提高竞争力，降价就得提高产量，于是农作物生产过剩，无人消费。durable=longlastsimultaneously=atthesametimerecognized=acceptedcaseinpoint=goodexamplethecourseofchange=thewaychangedevelopedcourteous=politebarring=excludingelevated=highincidence=frequencydismiss=rejecthasten=hurry第二篇语言学原文回顾：相似的语言来自同一种语言体系，语言在某一个时候被分化成很多支，时间越长，变化越大。不一样的地区有不一样的语言，然而一些相似的语言可能来自同一种语言体系。经过漫长的演变，各种语族的语法结构都不同。不过这不影响研究，因为真正能反应人们想法和经历的是词汇。比如词汇里二十多种有关衣服的表达，那么这说明这对他们有特殊意义，而且他们的母语都有这东西。相关背景学习：LinguisticsLinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Therearethreeaspectstothisstudy:languageform,languagemeaning,andlanguageincontext.TheearliestactivitiesinthedescriptionoflanguagehavebeenattributedtoPāṇini,whowasanearlystudentoflinguistics(fl.4thcenturyBCE),withhisanalysisofSanskritinAshtadhyayi.Linguisticsanalyzeshumanlanguageasasystemforrelatingsounds(orsignsinsignedlanguages)andmeaning.Phoneticsstudiesacousticandarticulatorypropertiesoftheproductionandperceptionofspeechsoundsandnon-speechsounds.Thestudyoflanguagemeaning,ontheotherhand,dealswithhowlanguagesencoderelationsbetweenentities,properties,andotheraspectsoftheworldtoconvey,process,andassignmeaning,aswellastomanageandresolveambiguity.Whilethestudyofsemanticstypicallyconcernsitselfwithtruthconditions,pragmaticsdealswithhowcontextinfluencesmeanings.Grammarisasystemofruleswhichgoverntheformoftheutterancesinagivenlanguage.Itencompassesbothsoundandmeaning,andincludesphonology(howsoundsandgesturesfunctiontogether),morphology(theformationandcompositionofwords),andsyntax(theformationandcompositionofphrasesandsentencesfromwords).Intheearly20thcentury,FerdinanddeSaussuredistinguishedbetweenthenotionsoflangueandparoleinhisformulationofstructurallinguistics.Accordingtohim,paroleisthespecificutteranceofspeech,whereaslanguereferstoanabstractphenomenonthattheoreticallydefinestheprinciplesandsystemofrulesthatgovernalanguage.ThisdistinctionresemblestheonemadebyNoamChomskybetweencompetenceandperformance,wherecompetenceisindividual'sidealknowledgeofalanguage,whileperformanceisthespecificwayinwhichitisused.Theformalstudyoflanguagehasalsoledtothegrowthoffieldslikepsycholinguistics,whichexplorestherepresentationandfunctionoflanguageinthemind;neurolinguistics,whichstudieslanguageprocessinginthebrain;andlanguageacquisition,whichinvestigateshowchildrenandadultsacquireaparticularlanguage.Linguisticsalsoincludesnonformalapproachestothestudyofotheraspectsofhumanlanguage,suchassocial,cultural,historicalandpoliticalfactors.Thestudyofculturaldiscoursesanddialectsisthedomainofsociolinguistics,whichlooksattherelationbetweenlinguisticvariationandsocialstructures,aswellasthatofdiscourseanalysis,whichexaminesthestructureoftextsandconversations.Researchonlanguagethroughhistoricalandevolutionarylinguisticsfocusesonhowlanguageschange,andontheoriginandgrowthoflanguages,particularlyoveranextendedperiodoftime.Corpuslinguisticstakesnaturallyoccurringtextsorfilms(insignedlanguages)asitsprimaryobjectofanalysis,andstudiesthevariationofgrammaticalandotherfeaturesbasedonsuchcorpora.Stylisticsinvolvesthestudyofpatternsofstyle:withinwritten,signed,orspokendiscourse.Languagedocumentationcombinesanthropologicalinquirywithlinguisticinquirytodescribelanguagesandtheirgrammars.Lexicographycoversthestudyandconstructionofdictionaries.Computationallinguisticsappliescomputertechnologytoaddressquestionsintheoreticallinguistics,aswellastocreateapplicationsforuseinparsing,dataretrieval,machinetranslation,andotherareas.Peoplecanapplyactualknowledgeofalanguageintranslationandinterpreting,aswellasinlanguageeducation–theteachingofasecondorforeignlanguage.Policymakersworkwithgovernmentstoimplementnewplansineducationandteachingwhicharebasedonlinguisticresearch.Areasofstudyrelatedtolinguisticsincludesemiotics(thestudyofsignsandsymbolsbothwithinlanguageandwithout),literarycriticism,translation,andspeech-languagepathology.第三篇大灭绝ExtinctionInbiologyandecology,extinctionistheendofanorganismorofagroupoforganisms(taxon),normallyaspecies.Themomentofextinctionisgenerallyconsideredtobethedeathofthelastindividualofthespecies,althoughthecapacitytobreedandrecovermayhavebeenlostbeforethispoint.Becauseaspecies'potentialrangemaybeverylarge,determiningthismomentisdifficult,andisusuallydoneretrospectively.ThisdifficultyleadstophenomenasuchasLazarustaxa,whereaspeciespresumedextinctabruptlyreappears(typicallyinthefossilrecord)afteraperiodofapparentabsence.TheageoftheEarthisabout4.54billionyearsold.TheearliestundisputedevidenceoflifeonEarthdatesatleastfrom3.5billionyearsago,duringtheEoarcheanEraafterageologicalcruststartedtosolidifyfollowingtheearliermoltenHadeanEon.Therearemicrobialmatfossilsfoundin3.48billion-year-oldsandstonediscoveredinWesternAustralia.Earlierphysicalevidencesoflifeincludegraphite,abiogenicsubstance,in3.7billion-year-oldmetasedimentaryrocksdiscoveredinsouthwesternGreenland,aswellas,remainsofbioticlifefoundin4.1billion-year-oldrocksinWesternAustralia.Accordingtooneoftheresearchers,Iflife