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黑洞(简介)BLACKHOLES*参考文献见:张镇九:现代相对论和黑洞物理学(1986),第5、6、7、8章张镇九等:相对论物理学(1997),第10章相关部分所引文献;•1997-2004年的文献列于相关幻灯片的后面。•向被引文献的作者致谢。.•自然界的黑洞是宇宙中存在的最理想的宏观物体:其构造的仅有元素仅是我们的时间和空间的概念。•Theblackbolesofnaturearethemostperfectmacroscopicobjectsthereareintheuniverse:theonlyelementsintheirconstructionareourconceptsofspaceandtime.S.Chandrasekhar(1983)(1983年物理学诺贝尔奖获得者)导引的提纲Outline•1牛顿物理学中的黑洞TheLaplace'invisiblestarinNewtonianPhysics,•2广义相对论中的黑洞No-escapableregionofspace-timeinGeneralRelativity•3量子黑洞-黑洞的辐射与蒸发Quantumblackholes,Radiationandevaporationfromablackhole,•4黑洞存在的观测证据Observationalevidencesoftheexistenceofblackholes.•5霍金最新的黑洞假说1牛顿理论中的黑洞概念BLACKHOLEINNEWTON'STHEORY•黑洞的概念早在1783年由迈克尔给凯文迪许的信中首次提出.TheconceptofablackholewasfirstexpressedbyJohnMichelinhisletterof1783toHenryCavendish.•主要想法是:一个球形的发光的星体,具有与太阳相同的密度,而直径比太阳的大五百倍,那么,从这个星体表面逃逸的速度将大于光速。Hismainideawasthatforaspherical,luminousstar,ofthesamedensityasthesun,andwithadiameterfivehundredtimeslargerthanthatofthesun,thespeedofescapefromthesurfaceofthestarwouldexceedthespeedoflight.MRmv由能量守衡定律(光速)代入数值,(太阳半径)(太阳密度)(万有引力常数)逃逸速度(无穷远处),msvkm.R,RR,kgm.,kgNm.G,GRRGMvoRGMmmv183332211210310569550010411067638221双星中的黑洞Blackholeinabinarystar•1676年,Roemer测出了光速。In1676,Roemerhaddeterminedthespeedoflighttobe214,300km/sec.•Michel还指出,双星系统中,那颗看不见的星就可能是黑洞。Michelalsopointedoutthatifwecannotseetheotherstarinabinarystarsystem,itisprobablyablackhole.看不见的星InvisibleStar(Laplace1798)•拉普拉斯(1798):一颗发光的星,密度与地球相同,直径比太阳的大250倍,它发出的光将被吸引回去而达不到我们这里。因此,宇宙中的最大发光星体可能由于这个原因而成为看不见的星。MarquisdeLaplace:``aluminousstar,ofthesamedensityastheearth,andwhosediametershouldbetwohundredandfiftytimeslargerthanthatofthesun,wouldnot,inconsequenceofitsattraction,allowanyofitsraystoarriveatus.Itisthereforepossiblethatthelargestluminousbodiesintheuniversemay,throughthiscause,beinvisible.''(TheSystemoftheWorld).引力半径GravitationalradiusrGMcg22.,cRGMv2由逃逸速度2时空中不可逃逸的区域No-escapableregionofspace-time事件视界Eventhorizon在非常强的引力场中,例如在中子星的表面或接近黑洞的事件视界,我们必须用广义相对论。Inthecaseofverystronggravitationalfields,suchasonthesurfacesofneutronstarsorclosetothe“eventhorizon”ofblackholes,wehavetouseGeneralRelativity.比中子星的密度还大很多Muchmoredensethanneutronstars•中子星的密度的数量级为1012kgm-3.•在18-19世纪,很难想象一个密度比中子星还大的星体。直到20世纪60年代,才将这种星体叫黑洞。Neutronstardensitiesareoftheorderof10^15g.cm^-3.Itwashardatthattimetoimagineastar,suchasablackhole,whichismuchmoredensethanneutronstars.Thismightbethereasonwhyblackholeshadnotbeenpaidmuchattentionuntilthe1960'swhenthenameofblackholewascoined.三种不同特性的黑洞•史瓦西黑洞(球形)Schwarzschildblackhole•克尔黑洞(旋转)Kerrblackhole•克尔-纽曼黑洞(旋转并带电)Kerr-Newmanblackhole史瓦西黑洞Schwarzschildblackhole•它是不旋转、不带电的黑洞;它的大小只与质量M有关;它的外部时空由爱因斯坦场方程的静态球对称解所描述。In1967,itwasprovedthatanynon-rotatingblackholewouldendupaftergravitationalcollapseasaSchwarzschildblackholewhosesizedependsonlyonitsmassandwhoseexternalspacetimeisdescribedbythesphericallysymmetricsolutionofEinstein'sfieldequations(Schwarzschild,1916;Penrose,1965;Wheeler,1966;Israel,1967)).dsGMrcdtGMrcdrrddrRrrGMcg2222122222212122()()(sin)(,).克尔黑洞Kerrblackhole•1963年克尔发现旋转黑洞的爱因斯坦场方程的稳态轴对称解。TheaxisymmetricsolutionofEinstein'sfieldequationsforarotatingblackholewasdiscoveredbyKerr(1963).•它是只旋转、不带电的黑洞;它的外部时空由质量M和角动量J描述。ArotatingblackholeiscalledaKerrblackhole,whoseexternalspacetimeiscompletelycharacterizedbyitsmassMandangularmomentumJ.dsdtdaMrdrdrarMraMaraa22222222222222222222222222222()sin,cos,,,()sin,能层,ergospherer+r_E0E2E10E2E0从黑洞提取能量!克尔-纽曼黑洞Kerr-Newmanblackhole•1965年纽曼发现旋转带电黑洞的爱因斯坦场方程的稳态轴对称解。TheaxisymmetricsolutionofEinstein'sfieldequationsforarotatingchargedblackholewasdiscoveredbyNewman(1965).•它是旋转、带电的黑洞;它的外部时空由质量M、角动量J和电量Q描述。ArotatingblackholeiscalledaKerrblackhole,whoseexternalspacetimeiscompletelycharacterizedbyitsmassMandangularmomentumJ.dddddddsataratraar22222222222222222sinsinsinsinraraeMr2222222cos,.克尔-纽曼度规Kerr-Newmanmetric黑洞形成的三个过程Thethreeprocessesofblackholeformation1.恒星的引力塌缩(恒星黑洞)Thegravitationalcollapseofstars2.星云中心的引力塌缩(巨黑洞)Thegravitationalcollapseofadenseclusterofstars3.极早期宇宙中的引力塌缩(微黑洞)Thegravitationalcollapseintheveryearlyuniverse1.恒星的引力塌缩Thegravitationalcollapseofstars白矮星,M1.4M中子星,1.4MM3.2M恒星黑洞,M3.2MM(太阳质量)~2.21030kg白矮星Whitedwarf•气体云的致密化形成恒星。由氦转变为较重的元素的核反应,..…,形成最稳定的恒星核。Starsformbycondensationofagascloud.Nuclearreactionsconvertingheliumtoheavierelements,.....,tothemoststablenucleioccur.•当恒星的质量小于1.4M,电子简并压强足以抗衡引力,这类恒星形成白矮星。Forstarswhosemassesarelessthan1.4M,theelectrondegeneracypressurebecomessufficienttosupportstars.Theend-productofthistypeofstariscalledawhitedwarf.中子星Neutronstars•中子星是稳定的恒星,密度比白矮星大108倍,质量小于~3M。Neutronstarsarestablestars,whosemassesarelessthan~3M,butwithdensity~10^8timeslargerthanthatofwhitedwarfs.•电子简并压强不足以抗衡引力,中子简并压强足以抗衡引力。Electrondegeneracypressureisnotsufficientforsupportandnofurtherenergygeneratingnuclearreactioncanoccur,butneutrondegeneracypressurecananddoesprovidesupport.恒星黑洞Blackholes•如果恒星的塌缩部分的质量大于~3M,平衡不可达到。Ifthemassofthecollapsingportionofastar
本文标题:80黑洞简介
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