英语国家漫游 - 加拿大

英语国家漫游Introduction•CanadaisaNorthAmericancountryconsistingoftenprovincesandthreeterritories.Locatedinthenorthernpartofthecontinent,itextendsfromtheAtlanticOceanintheeasttothePacificOceaninthewest,andnorthwardintotheArcticOcean.•Spanningover9.9millionsquarekilometres,Canadaistheworld'ssecond-largestcountrybytotalarea,anditscommonborderwiththeUnitedStatesisthelongestlandborderintheworld.•ThelandthatisnowCanadawasinhabitedformillenniabyvariousgroupsofAboriginalpeoples.Beginninginthelate15thcentury,BritishandFrenchexpeditionsexplored,andlatersettled,alongtheregion'sAtlanticcoast.FrancecedednearlyallofitscoloniesinNorthAmericain1763aftertheSevenYears'War.In1867,withtheunionofthreeBritishNorthAmericancoloniesthroughConfederation,Canadawasformedasafederaldominionoffourprovinces.ThisbegananaccretionofprovincesandterritoriesandaprocessofincreasingautonomyfromtheUnitedKingdom.ThiswideningautonomywashighlightedbytheStatuteofWestminster1931andculminatedintheCanadaAct1982,whichseveredthevestigesoflegaldependenceontheBritishparliament•CanadaisafederalstatethatisgovernedasaparliamentarydemocracyandaconstitutionalmonarchywithQueenElizabethIIasitsheadofstate.ItisabilingualnationwithbothEnglishandFrenchasofficiallanguagesatthefederallevel.Oneoftheworld'smosthighly-developedcountries,Canadahasadiversifiedeconomythatisreliantuponitsabundantnaturalresourcesandupontrade–particularlywiththeUnitedStates,withwhichCanadahashadalongandcomplexrelationship.ItisamemberoftheG7,G8,G20,NATO,OECD,WTO,CommonwealthofNations,Francophonie,OAS,APEC,andUN.Withthesixth-highestHumanDevelopmentIndexglobally,Canadahasoneofthehigheststandardsoflivingintheworld.Governmentandpolitics•Canadahasastrongdemocratictradition,upheldthroughaparliamentarysystemwithinthecontextofaconstitutionalmonarchy.ThemonarchyofCanadaisthefoundationoftheexecutive,legislative,andjudicialbranchesofthegovernment.ThecurrentsovereignisQueenElizabethII,whoalsoservesasheadofstateof15otherCommonwealthcountriesandeachofCanada'stenprovinces.TheQueenresidespredominantlyintheUnitedKingdom;assuch,herformalrepresentative,theGovernorGeneralofCanada(presentlyDavidLloydJohnston),carriesoutmostofthefederalroyaldutiesinCanada.•Thedirectparticipationoftheroyalandviceroyalfiguresinareasofgovernanceislimited;inpractice,theiruseofexecutivepowersisdirectedbytheCabinet,acommitteeofministersoftheCrownresponsibletotheelectedHouseofCommonsandchosenandheadedbythePrimeMinisterofCanada(presentlyStephenHarper),theheadofgovernment,thoughthegovernorgeneralormonarchmayincertaincrisissituationsexercisetheirpowerwithoutministerialadvice.Toensurethestabilityofgovernment,thegovernorgeneralwillusuallyappointasprimeministerthepersonwhoisthecurrentleaderofthepoliticalpartythatcanobtaintheconfidenceofapluralityintheHouseofCommons.ThePrimeMinister'sOffice(PMO)isthusoneofthemostpowerfulinstitutionsingovernment,initiatingmostlegislationforparliamentaryapprovalandselectingforappointmentbytheCrown,besidestheaforementioned,thegovernorgeneral,lieutenantgovernors,senators,federalcourtjudges,andheadsofCrowncorporationsandgovernmentagencies.Theleaderofthepartywiththesecond-mostseatsusuallybecomestheLeaderofHerMajesty'sLoyalOpposition(presentlyNycoleTurmel)andispartofanadversarialparliamentarysystemintendedtokeepthegovernmentincheck.•Eachofthe308MembersofParliament(MPs)intheHouseofCommonsiselectedbysimplepluralityinanelectoraldistrictorriding.Generalelectionsmustbecalledbythegovernorgeneral,ontheadviceoftheprimeminister,withinfouryearsofthepreviouselection,ormaybetriggeredbythegovernmentlosingaconfidencevoteintheHouse.The105membersoftheSenate,whoseseatsareapportionedonaregionalbasis,mayserveuntiltheageof75.Fivepartieshadrepresentativeselectedtothefederalparliamentinthe2011elections:theConservativePartyofCanada(governingparty),theNewDemocraticParty(theOfficialOpposition),theLiberalPartyofCanada,theBlocQuébécois,andtheGreenPartyofCanada.Thelistofhistoricalpartieswithelectedrepresentationissubstantial.Geography•CanadaoccupiesamajornorthernportionofNorthAmerica,sharingthelandborderswiththecontiguousUnitedStatestothesouthandtheUSstateofAlaskatothenorthwest.CanadastretchesfromtheAtlanticOceanintheeasttothePacificOceaninthewest;tothenorthliestheArcticOcean.Bytotalarea(includingitswaters),Canadaisthesecond-largestcountryintheworld,afterRussia.Bylandareaalone,Canadaranksfourth..•Thecountryliesbetweenlatitudes41°and84°N,andlongitudes52°and141°W.Since1925,CanadahasclaimedtheportionoftheArcticbetween60°and141°Wlongitude,butthisclaimisnotuniversallyrecognized.Canadaishometotheworld'snorthernmostsettlement,CanadianForcesStationAlert,onthenortherntipofEllesmereIsland–latitude82.5°N–whichlies817kilometres(508mi)fromtheNorthPole.MuchoftheCanadianArcticiscoveredbyiceandpermafrost.Canadahasthelongestcoastlineintheworld,withatotallengthof202,080kilometres(125,570mi);additionally,itsborderwiththeUnitedStatesistheworld'slongestlandborder,stretchingover8,890kilometres(5,520mi).•Sincetheendofthelastglacialperiod,Canadahasconsistedofeightdistinctforestr