语言学教程Chapter 8. Language in Use

ChapterEightLanguageinUse231.DefinitionofPragmatics•Thestudyoflanguageinuse.•Thestudyofmeaningincontext.•Thestudyofspeakers’meaning,utterancemeaning,&contextualmeaning.4•Speaker’smeaning(Afatheristryingtogethis3-year-olddaughtertostopliftingupherdresstodisplayhernewunderweartotheassemble.)–Father:Wedon’tDOthat.–Daughter:IKNOW,Daddy.Youdon’tWEARdresses.5•UtteranceMeaningvs.SentenceMeaning•Utterancevs.Sentence–Sentence:abstractunitsofthelanguagesystem.–Utterance:unitsoflanguageinuse.6•Sentencemeaning:WhatdoesXmean?•Utterancemeaning:WhatdoyoumeanbyX?–Dog!–Mybagisheavy.–“Janet!Donkeys!”(DavidCopperfield)7•It’scoldinhere.8•ContextualMeaning:meaningincontext–Themeaningofthesentencedependsonwhothespeakeris,whotheheareris,whenandwhereitisused.–ItwasahotChristmasdaysowewentdowntothebeachintheafternoonandhadagoodtimeswimmingandsurfing.9•Semanticmeaning:themoreconstant,inherentsideofmeaning•Pragmaticmeaning:themoreindeterminate,themorecloselyrelatedtocontext101.A:Areyougoingtotheseminar?B:It’sonlinguistics.2.A:Wouldyoulikesomecoffee?B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.3.A:我带的钱不够，今天买不了。B:那就下次再买吧。112.SpeechActTheory•JohnAustin(1911-1960)•HowtoDoThingswithWords(1962)•speechacts:actionsperformedviautterances12•Constativesvs.performatives•Constatives:utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingis,eg:–IgototheparkeverySunday.–IteachEnglish.13•Performatives:utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts,donotdescribeorreportanythingatall;theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction;theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.•Performativeverbs:name,bet,etc.14•Ido.•InamethisshipQueenElizabeth.•Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.•Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.•Ipromisetofinishitintime.•Iapologize.•Ideclarethemeetingopen.•Iwarnyouthatthebullwillcharge.15•Felicityconditions:A.(i)Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure.(ii)therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.B.Theproceduremustbeexecutedcorrectlyandcompletely.C.Veryoften,therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,andmustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.16•Problemswithfelicityconditions–Nostrictprocedureforpromising.–Ipromise.–Igivemywordforit.–Ibequeathmywatchtomybrother.(TorF?)17•Minister:addressingthegroom)(Groom’sName),doyoutake(Bride’sName)foryourlawfulweddedwife,tolivetogetherafterGod’sordinance,intheholyestateofmatrimony?Willyoulove,honor,comfort,andcherishherfromthisdayforward,forsakingallothers,keepingonlyuntoherforaslongasyoubothshalllive?Groom:Ido.18•Featuresofperformatives•Firstpersonsingular•Speechactverbs/performativeverbs:–Thepresenttense–Indicativemood–Activevoice19•Ipromisetobethere.–I’llbethere.•IadmitIwaswrong.–Iwasfoolish.•Iwarnyou,thisgunisloaded.–Thisgunisloaded.•Ithankyou.–I’mverygrateful.•Iapologize.–I’msorry.•Iorderyoutositdown.–Youmustsitdown.20•Conclusion:•Thedistinctionbetweenconstatives&performativescannotbemaintained.•Allsentencescanbeusedtodothings.213.IllocutionaryActTheory•JohnSearle(1932-)•Speechactscanbeanalyzedon3levels:•Alocutionaryact:theactofsayingsomethinginthefullsenseof“say”.22•Anillocutionaryact:anactperformedinsayingsomething.Tosaysthistodosth.–InsayingX,IwasdoingY.–Insaying“Iwillcometomorrow”,Iwasmakingapromise.•Illocutionaryforce23•Aperlocutionaryact:theactpreformedbyorasaresultofsaying,theeffectsonthehearer.–BysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.–Bysaying“Iwillcometomorrow”andmakingapromise,Ireassuremyfriends.–Shoother!244.ConversationalImplicature•Peopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.•HerbertPaulGrice(1913-1988)•WilliamJameslecturesatHarvardin1967•LogicandConversationin197525•Grice’stheoryLogicandConversationisanattemptatexplaininghowahearergetsfromwhatissaidtowhatismeant,fromthelevelofexpressedmeaningtothelevelofimpliedmeaning.•TheCooperativePrinciple(CP)26•Makeyourcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.27•MaximofQuality:–Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.–Donotsaysomethingifyoulackadequateevidence;•MaximofQuantity:–Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).–Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.28•MaximofRelation:Berelative.•MaximofManner:Beperspicuous.–Avoidobscurityofexpression.–Avoidambiguity.–Bebrief.–Beorderly.29•CPismeanttodescribewhatactuallyhappensinconversation.•PeopletendtobecooperativeandobeyCPincommunication.30•However,CPisoftenviolated.–SinceCPisregulative,CPcanbeviolated.•ViolationofCPanditsmaximsleadstoconversationalimplicature.31Violationofthemaxims(Quantity)1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired.A:昨天上街买了些什么?B:就买了些东西。Idon’twanttotellyouwhatIbought.32DearSir,Mr.X’scommandofEnglishisexcellent,andhisattendanceattutorialshasbeenregular.YoursMr.Xisnotsuitableforthejob.332.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Aunt:HowdidJimmydohishistoryexam?Mother:Oh,notatallwell.Teachersaskedhimthingsthathappenedbeforethepoorboywasborn.Hersonshouldnotbeblamed.34A:Yourkidbrokethewindow.B:Boysareboys.Wariswar