cohesion and coherence语篇分析 衔接手段

衔接与连贯(cohesionandcoherence)衔接语篇的有形网络连贯语篇的无形网络Fourscoreandsevenyearsagoourfathersbroughtforthonthiscontinent,anewnation,conceivedinLiberty,anddedicatedtothepropositionthatallmenarecreatedequal.(1)GettysburgAddress(AbrahamLincoln)Nowweareengagedinagreatcivilwar,testingwhetherthatnationoranynationsoconceivedandsodedicated,canlongendure.Wearemetonagreatbattle-fieldofthatwar.Wehavecometodedicateaportionofthefield,asafinalrestingplaceforthosewhoheregavetheirlivesthatthatnationmightlive.Itisaltogetherfittingandproperthatweshoulddothis.But,inalargersense,wecannotdedicate—wecannotconsecrate—wecannothallow—thisground.Thebravemen,livinganddead,whostruggledhere,haveconsecratedit,faraboveourpoorpowertoaddordetract.Theworldwilllittlenote,norlongrememberwhatwesayhere,butitcanneverforgetwhattheydidhere.Itisforustheliving,rather,tobededicatedheretotheunfinishedworkwhichtheywhofoughtherehavethusfarsonoblyadvanced.Itisratherforustobeherededicatedtothegreattaskremainingbeforeus—thatfromthesehonoreddeadwetakeincreaseddevotiontothatcauseforwhichtheygavethelastfullmeasureofdevotion—thatweherehighlyresolvethatthesedeadshallnothavediedinvain—thatthisnation,underGod,shallhaveanewbirthoffreedom—andthatgovernmentofthepeople,bythepeople,forthepeople,shallnotperishfromtheearth.语篇的衔接手段众所周知，大树是通过许许多多的树叉把大大小小的枝条同树干连接起来形成一个完美的整体。其实语篇就好比是一棵大树——一个条理清晰，上下连贯（语篇特征）的整体，那么语篇是靠什么形成的呢？回答是靠衔接手段。衔接“衔接”这一概念是Halliday于1962年首次提出的。后来在他与Hasan合著的CohesioninEnglish一书中把衔接定义为“存在于篇章内部，使之成为语篇的意义关系”（Halliday&Hasan,1976:4）。他们认为，衔接是产生语篇的必要（尽管不足）的条件（1976：298-299）。在他们看来，有了衔接不一定产生语篇，但是如果没有衔接则一定不会产生语篇。他们系统地将衔接分为五大类：照应（reference）、替代（substitution）、省略（ellipsis）、连接（conjunction）及词汇衔接（lexicalcohesion）。其中前三类属于语法手段，第四类属于逻辑手段，最后一类属于词汇衔接手段。照应是一些起信号作用的词项。它们不能像大多数词项那样本身可作出语义理解，而只能通过照应别的词项来说明信息（Halliday&Hasan,1976:31）。照应分为外照应（exophora）和内照应（endophora）。内照应又可分为下照应（或称后照应）（anaphora）和上照应（或称前照应）（cataphora）。外照应指独立于上下文之外的词项。内照应指意义依赖于上下文的词项。下照应（后照应）指意义依赖于前述词项的词项、上照应（前照应）指意义依赖于后述词项的词项。ReferenceThesnailisconsideredagreatdelicacy.Asthechildgrows,helearnstobeindependent.Itnevershouldhavehappened.Shewentoutandleftthedooropen.替代指用一个词项去代替另一个或几个词项，是词项之间的一种代替关系。英语中常用的替代词one(s),do,same。Halliday和Hasan将其分为名词性替代、动词性替代和从句性替代。由于前述句子或上下文使得意义明确而省去句子的一部分称作为省略。它可以视为“零替代”（Halliday&Hasan,1976:142），省去一些上下文可使之意义明确的成分。SubstitutionComparethenewdictionarywiththeoldone(s).Werentahouse,buttheyownone.A:Blackcoffee,please.B:Thesameforme.Theydonotbuydrinksatthesupermarket,butwedo.Ithinkso.EllipsisHeprefersDutchcheeseandIpreferDanish.---Doyouunderstand?---Itriedto.---Youhaven’ttoldhimyet.---Notyet.连接是句际间意义相互联系的一种衔接手段，常用的有递进、转折、因果、时间。词义衔接是实现衔接的又一手段。它是通过词义的选择来实现的。ConjunctionItoldhimyearsago,buthewon’tlisten.Hewasdrownedbecausehefelloffthepier.Withthefollowingconjunctionsinsentencesorpassages:英语逻辑关系表示法1.先后或列举：first,second…;inthesecondplace;nest/then;foronething…foranother…;furthermore/moreover/inaddition/besides;finally/last;and等。2.因果：consequently/asaresult/hence/accordingly/thus/so/therefore;because/since/for等。3.特例或举例：inparticular;specifically;forinstance/forexample;thatis/namely等。4.转折：But/however/yet/nevertheless;onthecontrary;ontheotherhand;neither…nor等。5.引出结论：inconclusion/finally/allinall/tosumup；evidently/clearly/actually;ofcourse等。6.表示频率：frequently/often;occasionally/nowandthen;dayafterday;againandagain等。7.表示阶段：during;briefly;foralongtime;formanyyears等。8.表某一时刻：then/atthattime/inthosedays;lastSunday;nextChristmas;in2005;atthebeginninggoSep;atsixo’clock;twomonthsago等。9.表示开端：atfirst/inthebeginning;beforethen;intheprecedingweeks等。10.表示其间：inthemeantime/whilethiswasgoingon/meanwhile/asitwashappening/atthesametime/simultaneously等。11.表示结束：eventually/finally/atlast/intheend等。词义衔接主要可划分为重复、同义词、反义词、局部词、上座标词、下义词和搭配。LexicalcohesionTherearemorethan26,000patientsonthenationalwaitinglistfortransplants.About2,000patientsaredyingannuallywhilewaitingfortransplants,mostlypatientswaitingforhearts,kidneysandlivers,fortheshortageoforgans.OrganRetrievalMethodsSparkDebateDoctorstrytoexpanddonorpoolbypreservingbodypartspatientswhoseheartsandlungsfail.ExerciseWhyHistoriansDisagreeWhyHistoriansDisagree1Moststudentsareusuallyintroducedtothestudyofhistorybywayofafattextbookandbecomequicklyimmersedinavastseaofnames,dates,eventsandstatistics.Thestudents’skillsarethentestedbyexaminationsthatrequirethemtoshowhowmuchthedatatheyremember:themoretheyremember,thehighertheirgrades.Fromthisexperienceanumberofconclusionsseemobvious;thestudyofhistoryisthestudyof“facts”aboutthepast;themorefactsyouknow,thebetteryouareasastudentofhistory.Theprofessionalhistorianissimplyonewhobringstogetheraverylargenumberoffacts.Thereforestudentsoftenbecomeconfusedupondiscoveringthathistoriansdisagreesharplyevenwhentheyaredealingwiththesameevent.2Theircommonsensereactiontothisstateofaffairsistoconcludethatonehistorianisrightwhiletheotheriswrong.andpresumably,historiansarewrong,willhavetheir“facts”wrong.Thisisseldomthecase,however.historiansusuallyarguereasonablyandpersuasively.Andthefacts-thenames,dates,events,statistics-usuallyturnsout