Social exclusion in space and time

SocialExclusioninSpaceandTimeHarveyJ.MillerDepartmentofGeographyUniversityofUtah5260S.CentralCampusDr.Room270SaltLakeCity,[e-mail]–updated5/4/20052:29PM101.IntroductionTheconceptofsocialexclusioniscentraltosocialpolicyinEuropeandincreasinglyin15otherregionsoftheworld(Gore,FigueiredoandRodgers1995).SocialexclusionemergedinFranceduringthe1960sand1970sasanumbrellatermdescribingindividualswithproblemsunprotectedbythencurrentsocialinsuranceprinciples.Thisincludedthedisabled,elderly,substanceabusersandsingleparents.Socialexclusionwasviewedasafailureofkeystateinstitutionsatmaintainingpositiverelationships20betweensocietyandsomeindividuals(BhallaandLapeyre1997).Inthe1980’s,thetermevolvedtoincludemoregeneraltypesofsocialdisadvantagescreatedorexacerbatedbyrapidanddramaticeconomicchange,risingsocialinequity,retractionofthewelfarestateandincreasingsegregationthatthreatentobreakdownrelationshipsbetweensocietyandsomeindividuals(Mohan2002;Silver1995).Thesedisadvantages25manifestthemselvesasunemployment,lackofmarketableskills,lowincome,poorhousing,highcrime,poorhealthandfamilybreakdown(SocialExclusionUnit2001).Socialexclusionisamultifacetedconceptthatrequirescarefulmeasurement,particularlywhenanalyzingpolicyanddecisionsregardingtheallocationofinfrastructure,moniesorservices.Inpracticeitisoftendefinedastheabilityto30participateinmajorsocialinstitutionssuchasemployment,healthcareandeducationaswellastheabilitytoobtaintheresourcesandservicesthatcomprisetheacceptedstandardoflivingforthesociety(BhallaandLapeyre1997;Williams2002).Measurementstypicallyincludeattributessuchasunemployment,publicassistance,2education,healthandavailableservicesatsomelevelofgeographicaggregationsuchascensusorpoliticalunits(e.g.,DETR2000).Place-basedmeasuresareusefulbutincompletesincetheycannotcapturethefullspectrumofsocialexclusion.Exclusionisanevolvingpatternthatencompassesallfacetsofanindividual’slife(Rodgers1995);onlysomeofwhichoccurataparticular5placesuchasaperson’shomeorneighborhood.Place-basedmanifestationsofsocialexclusionareepiphenomena:socialexclusionemergesfromtheinteractionsofindividualsandhouseholdswhoselifehistoriesareconstrainedforvaryingperiodsoftimefromthepossibilitiesofferedbyasociety.Place-basedfactorssuchassegregationareimportantasevidenceofsocialexclusion,butrelativetohowtheseaffectthese10individuallifecoursesratherthanasadirectincarnationofexclusion(Byrne1999).Place-basedmeasuresareincompletesincetheycannotcapturetheseindividualisticlifeexperiences:theysufferfromtheecologicalfallacyofapplyingaggregatemeasurestoindividualcases.However,individual,people-basedmeasuresarealsoincomplete:theysufferfromtheindividualisticfallacyofignoringsynergistic,ecologicaleffectsatthe15placelevel.Consideringbothplaceandpeopleisnecessaryforafulldepictionofqualityoflifeanditsexclusion(NationalResearchCouncil2002).Afocusonplacesinsocialexclusionanalysismaypartiallyaccountfortheneglectoftransportationandinformation/communicationtechnologies(ICTs)suchastheInternetandmobiletelephony.Itisincreasinglyheroictoassumethatsimplegeographic20propinquityissufficientinsocietiesandregionswithhighautomobileownership,sparseandsometimesretractingpublictransitnetworks,sprawledcities,multipleincomehouseholdsandshort-termemploymentcontracts.Transportationmustbeconsideredasanessentialtechnologyforlivabilityinthesesettings(Solomon2000).ItisalsoincreasinglydifficulttomaintainaconceptualdivisionbetweentransportationandICTs25insocialexclusionanalysis,ortransportationscience,urbanplanning,civilengineeringandotherendeavorsthatshapeourcitiesandlives.Manypeopleusethesetechnologiesinaseamlessmanner.Therearealsoanincreasingnumberofservicesandopportunitiesavailableonline.A“digitalgap”withrespecttohighbandwidthandmobilecommunicationtechnologiescancombinewiththelackoftransportationresourcesto30sharpensocialexclusion(Grieco1995).3Thispapersuggeststhatthespace-timeactivitytheory(STAT)canprovidenew,people-orientedinsightsintosocialexclusion.STAThighlightsaccessibilityandextensibilityinspaceandtimeasastrictlynecessaryconditionforparticipatinginactivities,obtainingresourcesandacquiringinformation.Accessibilityreferstoaperson’sphysicalreachinspaceandtimethroughmovementwhileextensibilityrefersto5theabilitytoprojectpresencebeyondphysicallocationinspaceandtime.STATviewssocialexclusionasdifferentialconstraintsonpeoples’abilitiestoaccessorextendthemselvestoactivities,resourcesandinformationthatareavailableatfewlocationsinspaceandforlimiteddurationsintime.STATapproachescancomplementplace-basedanalysisbyhighlightingexclusioncreatedbysocialdifferencesinspace-timeautonomy10ortheabilitytocontrolone’sphysicalorvirtuallocationinspaceandtime.Manyindividualisticfactorscombinetorestrictspace-timeautonomy.Theseincludespatialseparationbetweenkeylifeactivities,work,householdandsocialnetworkobligationsthatrequirepresenceortelepresenceatfixedlocationsinspaceandtime,andalackoftransportationandICTstofacilitatepresenceandtelepresenceattheselocations.15Space-timeconstraintsandact