前提-Presupposition-讲义

ChapterTenPresuppositionⅠ.Thedevelopmentofpresupposition：philosophy→semantics→pragmatics1.1Philosophicalorigin:1.Fregethinksthat“人们在通过一句句子做出声音时，必然存在显而易见的前提。即在声言中的专有名词必有所指。”EG:(1)MarilynMonroediedinmisery.(2)MarilynMonroeexisted.(presupposition)(3)MarilynMonroedidn’tdieinmisery.2.InFrege’sopiniontherearethreepointsinpresupposition：（1）指称短语和（例如）时间分句均有所指，因而具有前提。（2）一个句子和它的否定形式具有同样的前提。（3）句子或声音，无论真实或谬误，其前提必然成立。1.2Semanticpresupposition:1.Linguistsregardpresuppositionasasemanticrelationshipbetweentwopropositions.(两个语义命题之间的一种关系)【扩展】：Entailment（蕴含）isakindofsemanticrelationship.Whenaistrue,bisnecessarilytrue;Whenaisfalse,bmaybetrueorfalse.即如果在任何使A真实的情况下，B也都真实，那么A语义上蕴含B.EG：(1).Thatpersonisabachelor.(2).Thatpersonisaman.2.Thedefinitionofpresuppositionismadebycomparedwithentailment.Accordingtothedifference,linguistsoftenusenegationtest（否定测试法）.Thatiswhenaistrue,bisnecessarilytrue;whenaisfalse,bisstilltrue.EG:(1):Johnismarried.(2):Johnexists.(presupposition)(3):Johnisnotmarried.3.Asentencemayhasthreekindsofmeanings：assertedmeaning(声言意义),entailedmeaning(蕴含意义),presupposedmeaning(前提).(1)Johnhasasister.(2)Johnhasafemalesibling.(assertion)(3)John’sparentshadmorethanonechild.(entailment)(4)Johnexists.(presupposition)4.Yulemadeaconclusionabouttheentailmentandpresupposition.Similarities：Theyaretheinformationthatcanbedeliveredbythespeaker,buttheinformationdon’texpresseddirectlyintheprocessofcommunication.Theyaregiveninformation(已知信息).Differences:Thepresuppositionsexistsinspeaker’sconcept;theentailmentexistsinthesentence’sconceptThus,thespeakerspossesspresupposition,thesentencespossessentailment.1.3Pragmaticpresupposition:1.♥Atthebeginningof1970s:threekindsofdefinition(1)语用前提指的是说话人对言语的语境所作的设想。EG:a.Samhasstoppedbeatinghiswife.b.Samhasnotstoppedbeatinghiswife.c.Samwasbeatinghiswife.(2)语用前提是施行一个言语行为所需要满足的恰当条件或是使一句话具有必要的社会合适性所必须满足的条件。EG:a.JohnaccusedHarryofwritingtheletter.b.Therewassomethingblameworthyabouttheletter.EG:Youaredisgusting.(3)语用前提是交际双方所共有的知识，或者说是背景知识。EG:a.WasitZoethatPetermarried?b.Petermarriedsomeone.♥Inthe1990s:Grundy:Presuppositionconcludespragmaticpresupposition(语用前提)andconventionalpresupposition(规约性前提).Hethinksthatpragmaticpresuppositionasback-groundassumption（背景假设）,andtheessentialofthepresuppositionisnon-linguistic.（非语言性的）。2.Thedifferencesbetweenpragmaticpresuppositionandsemanticpresupposition：Pragmaticpresuppositionconnectspresuppositionwithspeakers→前提是说话人的预设。Semanticpresuppositionconnectspresuppositionwithsentencesorproposition→前提是句子本身具有的一层意义。1.4Presuppositionandcontext1.Theshareinformationbetweenthespeakersisakeyelementincontext.Pragmaticpresuppositionisapartofcontext,whichexistsinthewholecommunicativecontext.2.Theshareinformationisnotconstant,whichenlargesandaccumulateduringtheprocessofcommunication.Theoriginalinformationwhichdoesn’tknowbythespeakerscanbecometheshareinformationduetotheinteraction.3.InLeech’sopinion：(1)Ifweregardpresuppositionisakindofsemanticrelation,themainpointistoknowwhatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenentailmentandpresupposition.(2)Fromthepragmaticpoint,theimportantthingistomakeadistinctionbetweenpresuppositionandassertion.Presupposition:thefamiliarandknowninformationinasentence.(predicate)Assertion:thenewinformation,whichisunfamiliarandunknowninasentence.(subject)EG:John’skidsallplayfootball.subjectpredicatepresuppositionassertion4.Theassertioncanbeapresuppositionofnextutterancewhenitbecomestheshareinformationduringthecommunication.EG:Thekidssawafilmlastnight.presuppositionassertionThefilm(thekidssaw)wasveryamusing.presuppositionassertionⅡ.Presupposition-triggers(前提语)符号〉〉表示“以…为前提”Presuppositionsaretiedtoparticularwordsorsurfacestructuresingeneral,weshallcallsuchpresupposition-generatinglinguisticitemspresupposition-triggers.♥Semanticlevel(语义层面)（1）Definitedescriptions（确定性的描述）：the、this、that、nouns…EG：Johngotmarriedlastweek.〉〉ThereexistedapersoncalledJohn.（2）Factiveverbs(实情动词):regret、realize、know…EG：Heispleasedthathissonismakingprogressinhismusiclesson.〉〉Hissonismakingprogressinhismusiclesson.（3）Iimplicativeverbs(含蓄动词):manage、forget…EG：Hemanagedtogettheticket.〉〉Hetriedtogettheticket.（4）Changeofstateverbs(表示状态改变的动词):stop、finish、begin、start、continue…EG：Theguestsarrivedat6.〉〉Theguestswerenotherebefore6.（5）Iteratives(表示反复的词语):verbs、adverbs、adverbialphraseEG：Hepromisedtorangagain.〉〉Hehadrungbefore.（6）Verbsofjudging(判断性动词)EG：Hepromisedtorangagain.〉〉Hehadrungbefore.♥Syntacticlevel(句法层面)（7）Adverbialclausesoftime(时间状语从句)EG：Theyleftwhiletherestofthepartywerestillenjoyingthemselves.〉〉Therestofthepartyenjoyedthemselves.（8）Cleftsentences(断裂句)EG：WhatIamlookingforismybook.〉〉Iamlookingforsomething.（9）Structuresandexpressionsindicatingcomparison(表示比较的结构和词语)EG：LucyisabetterpianistthanLily.〉〉Lilyisapianist.（10）Non-restrictiveattributiveclause(非限定性定语从句)EG：TheislandsofJapan,whicharelocatedtotheeastofChina,havefrequentlybeenstruckbyearthquakesofvaryingforces.〉〉TheislandsofJapanarelocatedtotheeastofChina.（11）Counterfactualconditionals(与事实相反的结构句)EG：IfColumbushadnotdiscoveredAmerica,someoneelsewould.〉〉Columbusdis