语言学教程Chapter-12.-Theories-and-Schools-of-Modern-Li

ChapterTwelveTheoriesandSchoolsofModernLinguistics•12.0Introduction•FerdinanddeSaussure:fatherofmodernlinguistics•CourseinGeneralLinguistics:C.Bally,A.Sechehaye•Saussure’sideasweredevelopedalongthreelines:linguistics:W.D.Whitney,Neogrammariantraditionsociology:E.Durkheimpsychology:S.FreudLanguageisasystemofsigns.Asignistheunionofaformandanidea.SaussureandWesterneconomyofhistimeDichotomiesbySaussure:LANGUEvs.PAROLESYNTAGMATICvs.PARADIGMATICABSENCEvs.PRESENCEVIRTUALWORLDSvs.ACTUALWORLDSSaussure’sinfluenceonmodernlinguistics:1.2.•Functionalism•Formalism1.Thefunctionalperspective•ThePragueSchool•TheLondonSchool•PragueLinguisticCircle:–StartedbyV.Mathesius(1882-1946)in1926,withsuchactivistsasR.Jacobson(1896-1982),N.Trubetzkoy(1890-1938)andlaterJ.Firbas(1921-2000).–TheCirclestoodattheheartofimportantdevelopmentsinstructurallinguisticsandsemioticsinthe1930's.1.1ThePragueSchool•Threeimportantpoints:–Stressedsynchroniclinguistics,butnotrigidlyseparatedfromdiachronicstudies.–LissystemicinthatnoelementofLcanbesatisfactorilyanalysedorevaluatedinisolationandassessmentcanonlybemadeifitsrelationshipisestablishedwiththecoexistingelementsinthesamelanguagesystem.–Lisfunctionalinthatitisatoolforperforminganumberofessentialfunctionsortasksforthecommunityusingit.PragueSchoolPhonology•N.Trubetzkoy:PrincipleofPhonology(1939).–Phonetics&phonology:differentforparole&langue.–Phoneme:anabstractunitofthesoundsystem.–Distinctivefeatures:phonologicaloppositions.Trubetzkoy’scontributions•Showeddistinctivefunctionsofspeechsoundsandgaveanaccuratedefinitionofthephoneme.•Definedthesphereofphonologicalstudies.•Revealedinterdependentsyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsbetweenphonemes.•Putforwardasetofmethodologiesforphonologicalstudies.•Analysisofutterances(ortexts)intermsoftheinformationtheycontain.•Theroleofeachutterancepartisevaluatedforitssemanticcontributiontothewhole.•Asentencecontainsapointofdepartureandagoalofdiscourse.Thepointofdeparture,calledthetheme,isthegroundonwhichthespeakerandthehearermeet.•Thegoalofdiscourse,calledtherheme,presentstheveryinformationthatistobeimpartedtothehearer.–Movementfromthemetorhemerevealsthemovementoftheminditself.•Therefore,thefunctionalsentenceperspective(FSP)aimstodescribehowinformationisdistributedinsentences.•Itdealsparticularlywiththeeffectofthedistributionofknown(given)infoandnewinfoindiscourse.–Newinfo:tobetransmittedtothereaderorhearer.–Sallystandsonthetable.ThemeRheme–OnthetablestandsSally.ThemeRhemeThreelevelsofasentence•GrammaticalSentencePattern(GSP)•SemanticSentencePattern(SSP)•CommunicativeSentencePattern(CSP)•Johnhaswrittenanovel.SubjectVerbObject(GSP)AgentActionGoal(SSP)ThemeTransitionRheme(CSP)Communicativedynamism(CD)•J.Firbas•Linguisticcommunicationisdynamic,notstatic.–CDmeasurestheamountofinfoanelementcarriesinasentence.ThedegreeofCDistheeffectcontributedbyalinguisticelement.Forexample,•Hewascross.–CD:ThelowestdegreeofCDiscarriedbyhe,andthehighestdegreeofCDiscarriedbycross,withthedegreecarriedbywasrankingbetweenthem.•NormallythesubjectcarriesalowerdegreeofCDthantheverband/ortheobjectand/oradverbialprovidedeithertheverbortheobjectand/oradverbialarecontextuallyindependent.–Thisisbecauseaknownorunknownagentexpressedbythesubjectappearstobecommunicativelylessimportantthananunknownactionexpressedbythefiniteverband/oranunknowngoal(objectoradverbialofplace)atortowardswhichtheactionisdirected.•Forexample,–Amanbrokeintothehouseandstoleallthemoney.•Theultimatepurposeofthecommunicationistostatetheactionand/oritsgoal,nottheagent.•However,ifthesubjectisfollowedbyaverbexpressing“existenceorappearanceonthescene”andiscontextuallyindependent,thenitwillcarrythehighestdegreeofCD,becauseanunknownpersonorthingappearingonthesceneiscommunicativelymoreimportantthantheactofappearingandthesceneitself,e.g.–Anoldmanappearedinthewaitingroomatfiveo’clock.•Ifthesubjectiscontextuallydependent,acontextuallyindependentadverbialoftimeorplacebecomesanimportantlocalandtemporalspecification,carryinggreaterdegreeofCDthanboththesubjectandthefiniteverb,asin–Theoldmanwassittinginthewaitingroom.1.2TheLondonSchool•B.Malinowski(1884-1942),professorofanthropology(1927).•J.R.Firth(1890-1960),thefirstprofessoroflinguisticsintheUK(1944).•M.A.K.Halliday(1925-),studentofFirth.–AllthreestressedtheimportanceofcontextofsituationandthesystemaspectofL.Malinowski’stheories•Language“istoberegardedasamodeofaction,ratherthanasacounterpartofthought”.•Themeaningofanutterancecomesfromitsrelationtothesituationalcontextinwhichitoccurs.•Threetypesofsituationalcontext:–situationsinwhichspeechinterrelateswithbodilyactivity;–narrativesituations;–situationsinwhichspeechisusedtofillaspeechvacuum—phaticcommunion.Firth’stheories•RegardedLasasocialprocess,ameansofsociallife.–Inordertolive,humanbeingshavetolearnandlearningLisameansofparticipationinsocialactivities.–Lisameansofdoingthingsandofmakingothersdothings,ameansofactingandliving.•Lisbothinbornandacquired.•TheobjectoflinguisticstudyisLinuse.•ThegoaloflinguisticinquiryistoanalysemeaningfulelementsofLinord