语言学问答题

1《现代语言学》问答题1.WhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?ArbitrarinessItmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.ProductivityLanguageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences.DualityLanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures.Atthelowerlevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.Thentheunitsatthehigherlevelcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.DisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Thispropertyprovidesspeakerswithanopportunitytotalkaboutawiderangeofthings,freefrombarrierscausedbyseparationintimeorplace.CulturaltransmissionLanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearningratherthanbyinstinct.Incontrast,animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.2.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?1)bymannerofarticulation.a.stops（plosive爆破音）:[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]b.fricatives（磨擦音）∫],[ʒ],[h]c.affricates（破擦音）:[t∫],[dʒ]d.liquids（lateral边音，流音）:[l],[r]e.nasals（鼻音）f.glides（semivowels半元音）:[w],[j]2)byplaceofarticulation:a.bilabial（双唇音）:[p],[b],[m],[w]b.labiodental（唇齿音）:[f],[v]c.dental（舌齿音）d.alveolar（齿龈音）:[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]e.palatal（腭音）:[∫],[ʒ],[t∫],[dʒ],[j]f.velar（软腭音）:[k],[g],[ŋ]g.glottal（喉音，声门单）:[h]23.WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?英语的元音是如何分类的？1)Accordingtothepositionofthetongue,vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfrontvowelssuchas[i:][i][e][æ][a],centralvowelssuchas[ɜ:][ə][ʌ],andbackvowelssuchas[u:][ʊ][ɔ:][ɔ][ɑ:]2)Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowelssuchas[i:][i][u:][ʊ],semi-closevowelssuchas[e][ɜ:],semi-openvowelssuchas[ə][ɔ:],andopenvowelssuchas[æ][a][ʌ][ɔ]and[ɑ:].3)Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,vowelsaredividedintoroundedvowelsandunroundedvowels.InEnglishallthefrontandcentralvowelsareunroundedvowels,allthebackvowels,withexceptionof[ɑ:],arerounded.4)Accordingtothelengthofthevowels,theEnglishvowelscanalsobeclassifiedintolongvowelsandshortvowels.Thelongvowelsinclude[i:][ɜ:][ɔ:][u:][ɑ:]，whiletherestareshortvowels.4.Whatarephonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair?Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning,theyareinphonemiccontrast.[p],[b]Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundsaretwoallophonesofthesamephonemeandtheyoccurindifferentenvironments,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.[p],[ph].Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Forexample,killandbill.5.Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationrule,andthedeletionrule.Sequentialrulereferstotherulethatgovernsthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.Forexample,ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:thefirstphonememustbe/s/thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/Assimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.Forexample,the[i:]soundinwordslikebean,green,team,andscream.Thisisbecauseinallthesesoundcombinationsthe[i:]soundisfollowedbyanasal[n]or[m].Deletionruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Forexample,inthepronunciationofthewordsignordesign,thereisno[g]sound3althoughitisrepresentedinspellingbytheletterg.Butintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,the[g]representedbythelettergispronounced.Therule:deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.6.Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?Suprasegmentalfeaturesarephonologicalfeaturesabovethesoundsegmentlevel.ThemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesinEnglisharewordstress,sentencestressandintonation.1)ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,suchas`importandim`port.Thesimilaralternationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements.AphonologicalfeatureoftheEnglishcompoundsisthatthestressofthewordalwaysfallsonthefirstelementandthesecondelementreceivessecondarystress,forexample:`blackbirdisaparticularkindofbird,whichisnotnecessarilyblack,butablack`birdisabirdthatisblack.2)Sentencestressreferstotherelativeforcewhichisgiventothewordsinasentence.Themoreimportantwordssuchasnouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,anddemonstrativepronouns,arepronouncedwithgreaterforceandmademoreprominent.Andtheothercategoriesofwords(articles,personalpronouns,auxiliaryverbs,prepositions,andconjunctions)areusuallynotstressed