企业文化和资源管理分析

Culture,Error,andCRM1Culture,Error,andCrewResourceManagement1RobertL.Helmreich,JohnA.Wilhelm,JamesR.Klinect,&AshleighC.Merritt,2DepartmentofPsychologyTheUniversityofTexasatAustinAbstractCrewResourceManagement(CRM)trainingisoneofthecriticalelementsofanorganizationalstrategytominimizeriskandmanagehumanerror.Theinfluencesofthreeculturesthatarerelevanttothecockpitaredescribed:theprofessionalculturesofthepilots,theculturesoforganizations,andthenationalculturessurroundingindividualsandtheirorganizations.Amodelofthreatanderrormanagementinaviationispresentedwithfindingsfromauditsofcrewperformance.Datarequirementstomaintainaproactivesafetyculturearediscussed.Thetransferoftrainingmodelsfromaviationtootherdomainssuchasmedicineandshippingisbrieflyconsidered.WeclosewithguidelinesfororganizationsimplementingmoreoperationallyfocusedCRMprograms.Culture,Error,andCrewResourceManagementThelatestCRMprogramsexplicitlyfocusonerroranditsmanagement.CRMtraining,initscurrentstate,canbestbedescribedasoneofthecriticalinterventionsthatcanbeemployedbyorganizationsintheinterestsofsafety.Morespecifically,pilotCRMskillsprovidecountermeasuresagainstriskanderrorintheformofthreatanderroravoidance,detection,andmanagement.Intheperiodjustpriortothebirthofthesenewprograms,CRMtraininghadbeensuccessfullyappliedtotheUSandWesterncockpitenvironment,althoughitsacceptancewasnotuniversal.Asweobservedthesecockpitprogramsappliedmindlesslytonon-Westernpilotgroupsandnon-pilotgroupssuchasFlightAttendants,maintenancepersonnel,dispatch,andeventonuclearpowerplantandrefineryoperations,webegantoseetheeffectivenessoftheprogramsslipping.Twoapproachesweretried.AnewresearchinitiativeintothedimensionsofnationalculturerelevanttotheaviationenvironmentandCRMtraininginparticularwasinitiated.Byknowingmoreaboutnationalcultures,wecouldbegintodesignCRMprogramsthatwereculturallysensitiveandthatwouldhavegreaterimpactonlineoperations.Thepilotculture,andthatofindividualorganizationsalsobegantobeunderstoodasrelevanttothesuccessandfailureofCRMprograms.Simultaneously,webegantorevisitthebasicconceptsofCRMinthehopeofbetterexplicatingitsgoalsandobjectives.Perhapstherewereuniversalobjectivesthatcouldbederivedthatappliedtopilotsofallnations,andeventonon-pilotgroups.Themarriageoftheseculturalresearchprograms(WhataspectsofCRMshouldbetailoredtospecificorganizationsandcultures?)anda“backtobasics”attempttorefinethegoalsandobjectivesofCRM(Whataretheuniversalgoals?)producedthenewgenerationofCRMprogramsthatwedescribeaserrormanagementCRM(seeHelmreich&Foushee,1993;Helmreich&Merritt,1998;Helmreich&Wilhelm,1991;Helmreich,Merritt,&Wilhelm,1999;andMerritt&Helmreich,1997,fordiscussionsoftheevolutionofCRMandoutcomesofCRMtraining).1ResearchsupportingthispaperwasfundedbytheFederalAviationAdministrationGrants92-G-017and99-G-004,RobertHelmreich,PrincipalInvestigator.SomefiguresareadaptedfromHelmreich&Merritt,CultureatWorkinAviationandMedicine,withpermissionofAshgatePublishing,Aldershot,UK.WearedeeplyindebtedtoCaptainsBruceTesmerandSharonJoneswhomademajorcontributionstothedevelopmentoftheconceptualmodelspresented,butarenotresponsibleforanyerrorstherein.Dr.ThomasChidesterhasalsocontributedsignificantlytoourthinkingaboutthemeaningoftrainingforsafetyinaviationandwethankhimforhisinsights.____________________________________________________________________________________________UniversityofTexasatAustinHumanFactorsResearchProject:254Helmreich,R.L.,Wilhelm,J.A.,Klinect,J.R.,&Merritt,A.C.(2001).Culture,errorandCrewResourceManagement.InE.Salas,C.A.Bowers,&E.Edens(Eds.),ImprovingTeamworkinOrganizations(pp.305-331).Hillsdale,NJ:Erlbaum.2TheworkreportedherewascompletedwhileAshleighMerrittwasadoctoralcandidateandpostdoctoralfellowattheAerospaceCrewResearchProjectatTheUniversityofTexasatAustin.SheisnowaProjectManageratDedale,4PlacedeLondres,RoissyCDGCedex,France.TheotherauthorsarewiththeDepartmentofPsychologyattheUniversityofTexasatAustin,Austin,TX78712.Culture,Error,andCRM2InordertobetterunderstandhowCRMskillsfitintothepilot’sjobdescription,webegansketchingabroadconceptualmodel.Ultimately,thejobofthepilotistooperatetheaircraftinasafemannerinordertotransportpassengersandgoodsfromplacetoplace.Thesuccessfulmanagementofriskorthreatisaprimarytask.Themodelwefinallyproducedhasfourlevels:externalthreats,internalthreats(labeled‘crew-basederrors’),crewactions,andoutcomes.SeeFigure1forourmodelofthreatanderrormanagement.Atthefirstlevel,threetypesofexternalthreatmayconfrontcrews–expectedriskssuchashighterrainsurroundinganairport,unexpectedrisksintheformofsystemmalfunctionorchangingweather,anderrorsbyexternalparties,forexample,incorrectdispatchreleasesorairtrafficinstructions.Wheneitheranexpectedriskorunexpectedriskisrecognized,crewscanemployCRMbehaviorsforerroravoidancebyevaluatingthethreat’simplicationsandusingdecisionmakingskillstodetermineacourseofaction.Threatrecognitionanderroravoidanceareassociatedwithsituationawarenessandrepresentaproactiveresponsethatcanbeobservedwhengroupsshareandevaluatethesituationandincludecontextualfact