Morphology形态学

3.2MorphologyABlikelyunlikelyhappyunhappyequalunequaldesirableundesirabledevelopedundevelopedQ:Anyconnectionbetweenthesetwosetsofwords?WordsincolumnB=WordsincolumnA+un-Theunit“un-”isnotonlythesharedelementinwordsofcolumnB,butalsomeansthesameinthesewords:“not”.①Theremustbesomerulesthatgoverntheformationofwords.CDunlikelylikelyun(notlikely)unhappyhappyun(nothappy)undevelopeddevelopedun(notdeveloped)②Theremustbesomerulesthatgoverntheinternalstructureofthewords.①+②:Thestudyoftherulesthatgoverntheformationofwordsandinternalstructureofwordsiscalledmorphology(形态学).3.3Morphemes(语素/词素)3.3.1DefinitionMyanswerisintwowords:im-possible!Amorphemeisthesmallestunitofmeaninginalanguage.Itisanarbitraryunionofsoundandmeaningthatcannotbefurtherdivided.3.3Morphemes3.3.2Bound&freemorpheme①freemorphemes(自由语素)Somemorphemesmayoccuralone,theycanconstitutewordsbythemselves,andalsocanbecombinedwithothermorphemes.e.g.boy,gentle,man,etc.②boundmorphemes(粘着语素)Somemorphemesmaynotoccuralone,theymustappearwithatleastanothermorphemetoformwords.e.g.un-,dis-,-ish,etc.Affixes(词缀)Prefix(前缀)—morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothermorphemes:un-,dis-,en-…Suffix(后缀)—morphemesthatoccuronlyafterothermorphemes:-ish,-ness,-er…Infix(中缀)—morphemesthatoccurbetweendifferentmorphemes3.3.2derivational&inflectionalmorpheme①derivationalmorphemes(派生语素)—boundmorphemesthatcanaddnewmeaningstotheexistingwords.Whentheyareconjoinedtoothermorphemes,anewwordisderivedorformed.Somederivationalmorphemesmaycauseachangeinsyntacticcategory/grammaticalclassoftheoriginalword.N.Adj.N.V.boyboyishlengthlengthenhealthhealthfulmoralmoralizeAdj.Adv.V.N.exactexactlysingsingerquickquicklyfreefreedomSomederivationalmorphemesdonotcauseachangeinsyntacticcategory/grammaticalclassoftheoriginalword.e.g.ex+wife=exwifesuper+man=supermanun+likely=unlikelylong+er=longershort+est=shortestmusic+ian=musician②inflectionalmorphemes(屈折语素)A.receivepermitperceivecommitconceivesubmitsuchmorphemesmayoccurinmanywords,combiningwithmanydifferentmorphemes,butitisdifficulttofindaconstantmeaningofthem,suchas“-ceive”and“-mit”.Suchmorphemesdonothaveconstantlexicalmeaning,theyonlyhavegrammaticalfunctions.A+B:Itisnotalwayspossibletoassignalexicalmeaningtosomeofmorphemes,andsomemorphemesonlyhavegrammaticalmeanings.Boundmorphemesthatonlyhavegrammaticalmeaningsarecalledinflectionalmorphemes.Theyarealwaysattachedtoindividualwords,andneverchangetheirsyntacticcategories.Theyarepurelygrammaticalmarkerstorepresentsuchconceptsas“tense”,“voice”,“number”,“aspect”,etc..Isailtheocean.Hesailstheocean.(agreementmarker)Hesailedtheocean.(pasttense)Hehassailedtheocean.(perfectaspect)Heissailingtheocean.(progressiveaspect)3.4Morphologicalrules3.4.1DefinitionMorphologicalrulesrefertothoserulesthatgovernhowmorphemesarecombinedtoformpermissiblewords.*somerulesarequiteproductive,whilesomeothersarelessproductive.3.4.2SomeproductiverulesRule1:V.+“-able”=“abletobeV.ed”accept+able=acceptablerespect+able=respectablechange+able=changeableV.+“-er”=“onewhoperformsanaction”love+er=loverhunt+er=hunterwrite+er=writer3.4.3Somelessproductiverulessincere+ity=sincerityscarce+ity=scarcity*fierce+ity=fiercitywide+en=widenripe+en=ripen*full+en=fullen3.5WaystoformnewwordsNewwordsmaybeaddedtothevocabulary/lexiconofalanguagebyderivationalprocess,inflectionalprocess,andcompoundingprocess.ThesethreewaysaremostimportantandmostwidelyusedonesinEnglishtoproducenewwords.①Coinage(新生词)—toinventnewwordstofitcertainpurposes.e.g.Kodak,nylon,aspirin,xerox,etc..②borrowingwords/loanwords(外来语)—toborrowwordsfromotherlanguages.e.g.alcohol(Arabic),dock(Dutch)jasmine(Persian),land(German)sputnik(Russian),tatami(Japanese)yogurt(Turkish),wok(Chinese)zebra(Bantu班图语),etc..③blending(拼缀法)—tocombinetheformerpartofonewordandthelatterpartofanotherwordtogethertoformnewwords.e.g.smoke+fog=smog,motor+hotel=motel,dance+exercise=dancerciseinformation+commercial=infomercial④clipping(简缩法)—touseshortformsoflongerwordstoaddnewwordsinEnglish.fan(fanatic),bus(omnibus),lab(laboratory),prof(professor),plane(airplane/aeroplane),ad/advert(advertisement),etc..⑤acronyms(首字母缩略词)—toderivefromtheinitialsofseveralwordstoformnewwords.Suchwordsarepronouncedasthespellingindicates.e.g.NATO=NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganizationUNESCO=UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganizationAIDS=AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndromeradar=radiodetectingandrangingdink=doubleincomenokidsnilk=noincomelotsofkids⑥back-formation(逆生法)—toremoveanaffixfromanexistingwordtoproduceanewword.e.g.editeditor,optoption,donatedonation,emoteemotion,televisetelevision,housekeephousekeeper,etc..