Chapter-8语言学

Linguistics–byicywarmtea-36-Chapter8LanguageinUseWhatispragmatics?What’sthedifferencebetweenpragmaticsandsemantics?Pragmaticsisthestudyoftheuseoflanguageincommunication,particularlytherelationshipsbetweensentencesandthecontextsandsituationsinwhichtheyareused.Pragmaticsincludesthestudyof(1)Howtheinterpretationanduseofutterancesdependsonknowledgeoftherealworld;(2)Howspeakersuseandunderstandspeechacts;(3)Howthestructureofsentencesisinfluencedbytherelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer.Pragmaticsissometimescontrastedwithsemantics,whichdealswithmeaningwithoutreferencetotheusersandcommunicativefunctionsofsentences.8.1Speechacttheory8.1.1Performativesandconstatives1.Performative:Inspeechacttheoryanutterancewhichperformsanact,suchasWatchout(=awarning).2.Constative:Anutterancewhichassertssomethingthatiseithertrueorforce.E.g.ChicagoisintheUnitedStates.3.Felicityconditionsofperformatives:(1)Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure,andtherelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.(2)Theproceduremustbeexecutedcorrectlyandcompletely.(3)Veryoften,therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,andmustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.8.1.2Atheoryoftheillocutionaryact1.Whatisaspeechact?Aspeechactisanutteranceasafunctionalunitincommunication.Inspeechacttheory,utteranceshavetwokindsofmeaning.Propositionalmeaning(locutionarymeaning):Thisisthebasicliteralmeaningoftheutterancewhichisconveyedbytheparticularwordsandstructureswhichtheutterancecontains.Illocutionarymeaning(illocutionaryforce):Thisistheeffecttheutteranceorwrittentexthasonthereaderorlistener.E.g.inI’mthirsty,thepropositionalmeaningiswhattheutterancesaysaboutthespeaker’sphysicalstate.Theillocutionaryforceistheeffectthespeakerwantstheutterancetohaveonthelistener.Itmaybeintendedasrequestforsomethingtodrink.Aspeechactisasentenceorutterancewhichhasbothpropositionalmeaningandillocutionaryforce.AspeechactwhichisperformedindirectlyissometimesknownasanindirectLinguistics–byicywarmtea-37-speechact,suchasthespeechactoftherequestingabove.Indirectspeechactsareoftenfelttobemorepolitewaysofperformingcertainkindsofspeechact,suchasrequestsandrefusals.2.Locutionaryact:AdistinctionismadebyAustininthetheoryofspeechactsbetweenthreedifferenttypesofactsinvolvedinorcausedbytheutteranceofasentence.Alocutionaryactisthesayingofsomethingwhichismeaningfulandcanbeunderstood.3.Illocutionaryact:Anillocutionaryactisusingasentencetoperformafunction.4.Perlocutionaryact:Aperlocutionaryactistheresultsoreffectsthatareproducedbymeansofsayingsomething.8.2Thetheoryofconversationalimplicature8.2.1Thecooperativeprinciple1.Thecooperativeprinciple(CP)Cooperativeprinciplereferstothe“co-operation”betweenspeakersinusingthemaximsduringtheconversation.Therearefourconversationalmaxims:(1)Themaximofquantity:a.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired.b.Don’tmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.(2)Themaximofquality:Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.a.Don’tsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.b.Don’tsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.(3)Themaximofrelation:Saythingsthatarerelevant.(4)Themaximofmanner:Beperspicuous.a.Avoidobscurityofexpression.b.Avoidambiguity.c.Bebrief.d.Beorderly.2.Conversationalimplicature:Theuseofconversationalmaximstoimplymeaningduringconversationiscalledconversationalimplicature.8.2.2Violationofthemaxims[Infactthisistakenfromoneofmyessays.Onlyforreference.^_^-icywarmtea]1.ConversationalimplicatureInourdailylife,speakersandlistenersinvolvedinconversationaregenerallycooperatingwitheachother.Inotherwords,whenpeoplearetalkingwitheachother,theymusttrytoconversesmoothlyandsuccessfully.Inacceptingspeakers’presuppositions,listenershavetoassumethataspeakerisnottryingtomisleadthem.Thissenseofcooperationissimplyoneinwhichpeoplehavingaconversationarenotnormallyassumedtobetryingtoconfuse,trick,orwithholdLinguistics–byicywarmtea-38-relevantinformationfromoneanother.However,inrealcommunication,theintentionofthespeakerisoftennottheliteralmeaningofwhatheorshesays.Therealintentionimpliedinthewordsiscalledconversationalimplicature.Forexample:[1]A:Canyoutellmethetime?B:Well,themilkmanhascome.Inthislittleconversation,AisaskingBaboutthetime,butBisnotansweringdirectly.ThatindicatesthatBmayalsonotnotheaccuratetime,butthroughsaying“themilkmanhascome”,heisinfactgivingaroughtime.TheanswerBgivesisrelatedtotheliteralmeaningofthewords,butisnotmerelythat.Thatisoftenthecaseincommunication.Thetheoryofconversationalimplicatureisforthepurposeofexplaininghowlistenersinferthespeakers’intentionthroughthewords.2.TheCPThestudyofconversationalimplicaturestartsfromGrice(1967),theAmericanphilosopher.Hethinks,indailycommunication,peopleareobservingasetofbasicrulesofcooperatingwitheachothersoastocommunicateeffectivelythroughconversation.Hecallsthissetofrulesthecooperativeprinciple(CP)elaboratedinfoursub-principles(maxims).Thatisthecooperativeprinciple.Weassumethatpeoplearenormallygoingtoprovideanappropriateamountofinformation,i.e.theyaretellingtherelevanttruthclearly.Thecooperativeprinciplegivenb