英国地方经济规划系统（PDF32）(1)

GY457AppliedUrbanandRegionalEconomicsUKPlanningSystemChristineWhiteheadLandUsePlanning•Goesundermanynames:Planning,zoning,regulation…andtakesmanyforms•Canberationalisedaspolicytooffsetformarketfailuresinlandmarkets:•Provisionofamenities(localpublicgoods);•Reductionofnegativeexternalitiesresultingfrominterdependenceoflanduses.•Landuseplanning–non-priceallocationoflandforurbanuses•So(may)determine–atleastinfluence-supplyandreduceelasticityofsupply(BarkerReport,2003)LandUsePlanning•Impact-institutionalcontextandformofplanningcritical;•US–zoning+rationingofhouse+lotbundlese.g.NewEngland•Soevenifitincreaseshousepricesmayreducepriceofhousingland•+minimumlotsize,powertoincorporateandleapfrogging,lowdensitydevelopment;(Graves2003)•now‘growthboundaries’or‘smartgrowth’esp.WestCoast•UK–Developmentcontrol,‘containment’+GreenBelts:highdensity+leapfrogging•ContinentalEurope–MasterPlan:butimpact/usagevaries-e.gFrancecf.Netherlands•Europe–EU&OECD:‘sustainablecities’;‘densification’UKLand-UsePlanningSystem•1947NationalisationofDevelopmentRights–crosspartyacceptanceuntilnow•Setoutframeworkbutplanningpermissionforindividualsitesrequired•Requiresidentificationoflandrequirementsbyestimatinghousingrequirementsforbothmarketandaffordablehousing•1990sIntroductionofS106–capacitytorequire(throughnegotiation)developerstoprovideforlocalinfrastructureandaffordablehousing•Localplanmustidentifytheneedforaffordablehousingandindicatemixbetweenmarketandaffordable(andpossiblywithinaffordablebetweensocialhousingandintermediatemarkethousing)•LocalPlansbasedonRequirementsNeedsAssessmentsDensities–localpolicys.t.nationalpolicyLocation–localdecisions.t.nationalbrownfieldsite/sustainabilitypolicies+WindfallSites•PlanningPermissionsLocalDecisions.t.appealtoSOStateTable1:ChangesinDwellingsandHouseholds(1981-2000)1981(000s)Increase1981-2000(000s)2000(000s)1981%2000%LondonDwellingsHouseholdsCrudeSurplus/deficit2663263528398551-15330613186-12514.815.2114.515.2-4SouthEastDwellingsHouseholdsCrudeSurplus/deficit27482644104614738-12433623382-2015.315.3415.016.1-0.6SouthDwellingsHouseholdsCrudeSurplus/deficit8997868131618752274-39910,87210,955-8350.050.23.551.252.2-0.8EnglandDwellingsHouseholdsCrudeSurplus/deficit17,98217,3066763,1413,666-52521,12320,9721511001003.81001000.7Table3:NewBuildingandConversionRequired,1996-2016(000s)Market%Affordable%Total%London513593614187419SouthEast647722492889620South18976699434289164England2883631669374552100Mix-adjustedhousepriceindices,culminativeanalysis-40-20020406080199019911992199319941995199619971998199920002001YearCulminative%GreaterLondonSouthEastWestMidlandsYorkshireNorthWestUKTable6:DwellingsizeandPlotArea(England1991)ConstructionDateDetachedHouseSemi-detachedTerracehouseFlatTotalFloorArea(averageareasqmetres)Pre19181581017966891919-44119767657811945-64111747157771965-8010573715678Post19809062605673PlotSize(averageareasqmetres)Pre19181,209446160…3761919-44925355230…4101945-64823341243…4111965-80554305170…357Post1980477234153…333RelationshipbetweenplanningandmarketUseofhedonicstoassessvalue(andpotentialconstruct)FactorsaffectingdemandversusneedTable2:Changesinpricesofselectedattributes:Readinghousingmarket,1984-9319841993%ChangeIncome(pre-tax)fromsample£13,694£28,969111.5SouthEast(RegionalTrends)£12,896£22,02770.8PriceLevel(1987=100)91.0141.955.9Samplemeanhouseprice£51,066£94,99086.0ReproducibleattributesCentralheating£4,954£5,99721.1Bedrooms£2,599£2,8017.8Bathrooms+WC£4,687£6,22932.9PlanningamenitiesLessindustrialland£74£224202.7Moreopenaccessibleland£51£227345.1Moreclosedunbuiltland1£102£60-41.2Space(priceperm2)GardenSpace:atcentre£49.5£152.3207.9atperiphery£4.5£22.9404.9mediandistance£12.8£32.1151.5Internalfloorspace£171£425148.5LocalPublicGoodsBestsecondaryschool£7,090£13,41489.2SupplyandDemandofCharacteristics¾Supplyofhousingcharacteristics(attributes):1)producedthroughmarketsandmaybesubjecttotechnicalprogress2)withmarketsubstitutese.g.stateeducation3)determinedbyfiatornature–fixedsupply¾Demandformanyhousingattributesisincomeelastic¾Forexample,space….Table3:EstimatedIncomeElasticitiesofDemandforSelectedAttributesofHousing:Reading,1984&1993;Darlington1984&1998;Nottingham1998AttributeReadingDarlingtonNottingham19841993198419981998ReproduciblestructureattributesBedrooms1.5931.8181.7062.2402.685Bathrooms+WC1.5851.8221.7052.2122.835SpaceInternalspace1.5921.7891.7512.2492.518Landarea(sizeofgarden)1.6781.7913.7551.9732.5921FromCheshireandSheppard1998a2FromCheshireetal,1999.Threeconclusionsfollow¾Housingdemand,inparticulardemandforspace,drivenverymuchmorebychangesinrealincomesthaninhouseholdnumbers:thisfeedsthroughtohousepricechangesSincehousingattributescanbesubstitutedforeachother(e.g.floors,terraced/detached,space,publicopenspace,roomsize/design)–¾IfBritishlanduseplanning‘rations’spaceexpectlandpricestohaverisenmorethanhousepricesRealLand&HousePriceIndices(1975=100):PaulCheshire,LSE20030501001502002503003504001892189518981901190419071910191319161919192219251928193119341937194019431946194919521955195819611964196719