托福阅读学科背景和词汇1地质地理天文生物自然精华整理版.

①地理地质GeographyandGeology②天文学Astronomy③生物学Biology④历史考古HistoryandArchaeology⑤艺术和艺术史Arthistory⑥心理学Psychology地理地质GeographyandGeologyGeography：沙漠化水循环气象学，气候形成以及气候现象，全球变暖，冰川期等气候类型与植物分布Geology：地球板块运动原理地震以及地球内部结构冰川，冰川期以及相应地貌的形成火山板块构造论platetectonics非洲版块AfricanPlate南极洲AntarcticPlate印度澳大利亚板块Indo-AustralianPlate欧亚板块EurasianPlate北美板块NorthAmericanPlate南美板块SouthAmericanPlate太平洋板块PacificPlate地球构造地壳：地球表面的坚硬外壳。平均厚度为17千米，但分布极不均匀，最厚的陆壳可达70多千米，最薄的洋壳不足2千米。按成分可分上部硅铝层和下部硅镁层。尽管质量只占全球的0.4%，但和人类活动关系最密切。压力stress断层faults滑过slip撞击collide能量energy地壳crust地震earthquake断层fault破裂rupture释放能量releasingalltheenergy地震波seismicwaves冰川glacier积累速度accumulationofsnow雪融化ablation(meltingandsublimation)岩石和岩石残骸rockanddebris地貌landforms冰川冰glacialice淡水储存库reservoiroffreshwater降水precipitation平均温度meantemperature云量cloudcover海平面sealevel美国五大湖区TheGreatLakesareacollectionoffreshwaterlakeslocatedinnortheasternNorthAmerica,ontheCanada–UnitedStatesborder.ConsistingofLakesSuperior,Michigan,Huron,Erie,andOntario,theyformthelargestgroupoffreshwaterlakesonEarthcomprising21%oftheworld'ssurfacefreshwater.五大湖形成TheGreatLakesareestimatedtohavebeenformedattheendofthelastglacialperiod(about10,000yearsago).Theretreatoftheicesheetleftbehindalargeamountofmeltwater.火山geothermalenergy地热能crater火山口lava火山岩浆PacificRingofFire太平洋火圈hotspots热点sulfuricacid硫酸stratosphere平流层沙漠Latin:Dēsertum=originallyanabandonedplace降水量amountofprecipitation地型landscapeorregion平均降水量averageannualprecipitation沙漠暴风雨desertstorms封闭的closed或者内陆的interior排水水系drainage地下泉水groundwatersprings石灰岩山丘limestonemassifs玄武岩basalticrocks蒸发evaporates河床streambeds沉积物sediment.干旱地区outsidethearidzone尼罗河Nile底格里斯河Tigris幼发拉底河Euphrates泛滥thefloods肥沃的fertile河谷lowervalleys农业灌溉irrigation高温hightemperatures低湿度lowhumidity作物crops生物的多样性biodiversity沙漠的动物desertfauna沙漠植物desertflora猫鼬meerkat蜥蜴lizards灌木shrubs仙人掌cactus物理过程physicalprocesses蒸发evaporation凝结condensation降水precipitation蒸腾Transpiration液态liquid固态solid冰ice气态gas水蒸气vaporgreenhouseeffect温室效应atmospherenitrogen氮气oxygen氧气argon氩气watervapor水蒸汽carbondioxide二氧化碳CarbonDioxide(CO2)Source:Fossilfuelburning,deforestation，AnthropogenicincreaseAverageatmosphericresidencetime:500years一般大气中的停留时间：500年Methane(CH4)甲烷（CH4）Source:Ricecultivation,cattle&sheepranching,decayfromlandfills,mining来源：水稻种植，牛，羊牧场，从垃圾填埋场，矿山衰减Averageatmosphericresidencetime:7-10years一般大气中的停留时间：7至10年Nitrousoxide(N2O)一氧化二氮（N2O）Source:Industryandagriculture(fertilizers)来源：工业和农业（化肥）Averageatmosphericresidencetime:140-190years一般大气中的停留时间：140-190年气候类型2013-1-6Astronomy天文公转系统rotatingsystem行星planet卫星satellite小行星asteroid彗星comet陨星meteoroid太阳的距离distancefromtheSunMercury,Venus,Earth,Mars,Jupiter,Saturn,Uranus,Neptune,andPluto太阳引力作用Sun'sgravitationalforce冥王星的轨道是椭圆形的Plutohasanellipticorbit.太阳的能量内核core热核反应thermonuclearreactions氢聚变hydrogenfusion四个氢原子fourhydrogennuclei一个氦原子核oneheliumnucleus地球和月亮类地行星terrestrialplanetsLatinname,Terra陆地的terrestrial地球的生物圈Earth'sbiosphere好氧生物aerobicorganisms臭氧层ozonelayer地球磁场magneticfield太阳辐射solarradiation局限于海洋的生命ocean-confinedlife太阳公转orbit地轴axis太阳日solardays恒星年siderealyear倾斜tilt季节变化seasonalvariations回归年tropicalyear(365.24solardays)天然卫星naturalsatellite引力作用gravitationalinteraction海洋潮汐oceantidesgraduallyslowstheplanet'srotation.地球公转orbitsEarth被太阳照亮illuminatedbytheSun月相thelunarphases新月crescent满月fullmoon月食mooneclipsetheMoon'sorigin大冲撞理论thegiantimpacttheory撞击collision假说hypothesis挥发性元素volatileelements成分composition陨石撞击meteoriteimpact坑，凹陷处depression腐蚀erosion风化weathering氦的比例proportionofhelium中子星neutronstar核聚变nuclearfusion亮度luminosity恒星风stellarwind红矮星reddwarf宇宙学家astronomer红巨星redgiant塌缩collapse冲击波shockwave超新星supernova超新星爆发supernovaexplosion(formingnebulaesuchastheCrabNebula)