会话含义与合作原则

1会话含义与合作原则美国语言哲学家格赖斯为了保证谈话顺利进行，谈话双方必须共同遵守一些准则，特别是在1967年提出的“合作原则”。当谈话一方不遵守合作原则而又不是为了说谎为目的即故意违反准则，于是就产生会话含义。会话含义就是一种超出语句本身意义范围的意义，即说话者的“言外之意”。一般来说，人们可以通过违反合作原则中的质、量、关系原则和利用方式准则来表达或推导出会话含义，来表达与字面意思不同的没有说出来的含义，回避志杰说出想表达的意思，含蓄的表达自己的真实意图。会话含义一般可以分为两类：一般含义和特殊含义。一般含义是指在遵守合作原则中的默想准则是带有的含义。特殊含义是指在有意违反合作原则中的某项原则，在特定的语境中推导出来的含义。会话含义的特征可以归纳为：可取消性、不可分离性、可推导性、非规约性和不确定性。概要：一、会话含义的由来二、合作原则的几项原则：质的原则量的原则关系原则礼貌原则三、会话含义的产生方法：违反质的原则：故意提供不足的信息，提供没有必要的信息违反量的原则：说一些不符合事实的话；说一些荒唐的话违反关系原则利用礼貌原则：使用有歧义的词语：使用不必要的词语；打乱叙述顺序四、会话含义的种类：一般会话含义和特殊会话含义五、会话含义的特点：可取消性、不可分离性、可推导性、非规约性和不确定性关键词：会话含义合作原则违反谈话2ConversationalImplicatureandCooperativePrincipleAmericanlinguisticsH.P.Griceoncegavein1967.Inthespeech,Gricesaid,thetwosidesoftheconversationmustobeysomebasicrules,especiallythe“cooperativeprinciple”,toensurethattheconversationcangoonpropitiously.Whenonesideoftheprincipledoesn’twanttolie,conversationalimplicaturecomesout.Conversationalimplicatureisakindofmeaning,whichisbeyondthesentenceitself.Generallyspeaking,peoplecanviolatethemaximofquality,quantity,andrelationandusethemaximofthemannertoproduceconversationalimplicature,whichsendtheunsaidmeaningofthewords.Generallyspeaking,conversationalimplicaturecanbedividedintotwokinds:generalizedimplicatureandparticularizedimplicature.Generalizedimplcaturereferstoanimplicature,whichobeysthecooperativeprincipleandalsohasthemeaning.Particularizedimplicaturereferstotheimplicaturethatviolatessomeofthecooperativeprincipleandmakesthemeaninginsomespeciallycontext.Thefeaturesoftheconversationalimplicature:cancelability,nodetachability,calculability,non-conventionalityandindeterminacy:Keywords:Conversationalimplicaturecooperativeprincipleviolateconversation3ConversationalImplicatureandCooperativePrincipleAmericanlinguisticsH.P.Griceoncegavespeechesin1967.Inthespeech.Gricesaid,thetwosidesoftheconversationmustobeysomebasicrules,especiallythe“cooperativeprinciple”,toensurethattheconversationcangoonpropitiously.Hebelievedthetwosidesoftheconversationshouldhaveasamewish:thetwosidescanunderstandeachother.Sobothofthemobeysomecooperativeprinciplestoachievetheaim.However,Gricesaid,notallthepeopleintheconversationobeytherules.Onceonesidefindstheothersidenotobeythecooperativeprinciple,hewillmakehimselftryhisbesttounderstandtheunsaidmeaningintheconversation.Sotheconversationalimplicaturecomesout.Astheconversationalimplicaturehasacloserelationshipwiththecooperationalprinciple,wewillintroducethecooperativeprinciplefirst.Inaconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate；Otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.Thisgeneralprincipleiscalledthecooperativeprinciple.Therearefourmainmaximsinthecooperativeprinciple:Themaximofquality:makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange)；Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Themaximofquality:donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;donotsaythatforwhichyoubackadequateevidence.Themaximofrelation:thewordshavearelationshipwithotherfactors.4Themaximofmanner:avoidobscurityofexpression;avoidambiguity;bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity);beorderly.Theconversationalimplicatureisameaningoutofthesentenceitself;itisthespeaker’smeaningundertheliteral.Inthereallife,peopleoftenviolatesomeprinciplestosentsomedarkmeaning.Themeaningrelatedwiththecooperativeprinciplemaybecomebythefollowingways:First,toviolatethemaximofquality1.Offerthedeficientinformationonpurpose.E.g.:OnefarmermeetsSamandsays:“Hey,Sam,myhorse’sgotdistemper.Whatdidyougiveyourshenhehadit?”“Turpentine,”gruntedSam.Aweeklatertheymeetagainandthefirstfarmershouts:“Sam,Igavemyhorseturpentinelikeyousaidanditkilledhim.”“Sodidmine.”noddedSam.第一位农妇的真正目的不仅是向Sam了解马病用了什么药，而且想了解治疗的结果，但通过对话它实际上只达到了一半的目标。Sam并没有满足第一位农妇想了解治疗结果的要求，它违反了“量”的准则，并没有完全提供交谈目的所需要的全部信息，结果第一位农夫因为没有察觉到这一点而受骗上当了。2.TheinformationissuperfluousE.g.:甲：他在你们银行工作的怎么样?乙：嗯，挺好！他不常跟同事吵架，跟顾客吵架也不多。正常情况下，作为对甲的回答，“挺好”已基本够了，但乙又说了下面5这两句话，提供了似乎毫无必要的信息。但是这两句话表达了乙的含义：他这人不讨人喜欢。Second,toviolatethemaximofthequantity.1.Saysomewordsthatarenotthetruth.Somerhetoricofferstheadvantagetothis.1)Heisafinefriend.2)Youarethecreaminmycoffee.第一句是反语，推导出的语用含义与巨资字面意思刚好相反：他是个背信弃义的朋友；第二句是个隐喻，说话人喻指对方是个出类拔萃者；2.Saysomewordswhicharecockeyed.甲：伯父就是伯伯的父亲，是吗?乙：师母一定是老师的母亲，我觉得。Third,toviolatethemaximoftherelation.Saysomewords,whicharenotrelatedwiththeconversation.Johnny:Hey,Sally,let’splaymarrowbles.Mother:Howisyourhomeworkgettingalong,Johnny?母亲的干预应该看作是她有意违反“关系”准则，让儿子从中推导出“不能去玩”这个语用含义。Forth,toutilizethemaximofmannertounderstandtheconversationalimplicature.1.Tobeobscurityonpurpose韩信曰：“先生相寡人何如？”对曰：“愿少间。”信曰：“左右去矣。”通曰：“相君之面，不过封侯；相君之背，贵乃不可言.”通意在劝韩信被判刘邦，以诚帝王之业，但又不便明说，便采用了含蓄的双关手法，隐晦的表达了意思。2.Touseambiguitywords6A:Nameandtitle,please?B:JohnSmith,Associateeditorandprofessor.B有意使用歧义句，使A不能确定他是副主编兼教授还是副主编兼正教授，从而抬高自己的身价。3.TouseunnecessarywordsMissSmithproducedaseriesofsoundsthatcorrespondedcloselywiththescoreof“Home,sweethome”.某人故意不简明扼要地说MissSmithsang“Home,sweethome”而说了啰嗦繁复的句子，显然是想暗示“史密斯小姐表演的极不成功”这样一个会话含义。4.TodisturbtheorderHerefilesofpinsextendtheirshiningrows；puffs,powder,patches,Bibles