Chapter-4-Syntax

Chapter4SyntaxOutline1.Categories(范畴)2.Word-levelcategories(词层面的范畴)3.Phrasestructurerules(短语结构规则)4.Phraseelement(构成短语的元素)Whatissyntax?Syntax---abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.Transformationalsyntax(转换生成句法)1.Categories(范畴)Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.同一种有相同语法功能，语义特征的语言项目归为一类，称之为范畴。Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech)2.Word-levelcategories词层面的范畴Majorlexicalcategories（主要词类范畴）:N,V,Adj,Prep.MinorLexicalcategories（次要词类范畴）:Det,Deg,Qual,Auxi,Conj.Det—Determiner(限定词)Deg—Degreeword（程度词）Qual—Qualifier(修饰词)Aux—Auxiliary(助动词)Con—Conjunction(连接词)TheCriteriaonWhichCategoriesareDetermined:确定词范畴的三个标准:Meaning意义Inflection屈折变化Distribution分布Note:themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingaword’scategoryisitsdistribution.MeaningThemeaningsassociatedwithnounsandverbscanbeelaboratedinvariousways.dilemmaandfriendship(abstractword)loveandhate(v.n)beawareofandknowabout(thesamemeaning,differentwordcategories)InflectionExample:boyanddesk(takethepluralaffix-s)workandhelp(takethepasttenseaffix-ed)quietandclever(takecomparativeaffix-er)Exceptions:somewordsdonottakeinflections:moisture,fog(无复数),frequent,intelligent（无比较和最高级）Distribution(分布性)Distribution(Whattypeofelementscanco-occurwithacertainword)词的搭配使用Nounscantypicallyappearwithadeterminer:(eg.thegirlandacard)Verbswithanauxiliary(e.g.shouldstayandwillgo)Adjectiveswithadegreeword(e.g.verycoolandtoobright)Note:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingaword’scategoryisitsdistribution.3.PhrasecategoriesandtheirstructuresPhrasecategories(短语范畴)---thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).围绕某一词范畴构成的句法单位被称为短语。Thestructure:specifier+head+complementHead(词头/中心词)----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier(指示语/标志语)----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement（补足语）----thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsEg.TheprettygirldreamingaboutgoingtoParis….Phrasestructurerules(短语结构规则)Thegrammaticalmechanism(语法机制)thatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule,suchas:NP→（Det）+N+(PP)……e.g.thosepeople,thefistontheplate,prettygirls.VP→(Qual)+V+(NP)……e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.AP→(Deg)+A+(PP)……veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP→(Deg)+P+(NP)……ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation.词头是什么词性，词组就是什么词性TheXPrule词组规则XPSpecifierXComplementHeadTheXPrule：XP→(specifier)X(complement)XstandsfortheheadN,V,AorP.Note:ThephrasestructurerulescanbesummedupasXPruleshowninthediagram,inwhichXstandsforN,V,AorP.CoordinationRule（并列规则）Coordinationstructures---thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.Fourimportantproperties:1)nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction;连词连接多少个成分没有限制2)acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated;任何层次都可以并列e.g.sonandfather,intheroomandinthegarden3)thecategoriesmustbeofthesametype;4)thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.并列词组的类别与构成该词组的类别一致Example:girlsplayinginthegardenandboysreadingintheroom名词短语intheroomandinthegarden介词短语判断并列短语的类别根据构成并列短语的成分的类别来判断4.Phraseelements短语成分SpecifierHeadComplementPhraseelement构成短语的元素Specifiers指示词/标志语----Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead(语义功能)；syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary(句法功能)指示词/标志语既有语义功能又有句法功能，语义功能让词头的意义更精确，句法功能指能通过指示词判断词的性质（比如，通过the这个指示语可以判断后面一定是名词）。指示语的句法功能随词头变化而变化Specifierscanbedeterminers(e.g.some,those)asinNP；限定词用于名词短语中；qualifiers(e.g.often,always,seldom)asinVP；修饰词用于动词短语中；anddegreewords(e.g.very,quite,more)asinAP.程度词用于形容词短语中。ComplementsComplements----Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,theyprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.e.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;(对词头进行修饰和补充说明)(P48)Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,cut,put…;Asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin“Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent.Idoubtifshewillcome.Theyarekeenforyoutoshowup.”SomeimportanttermsComplementizers(补语化成分/标句词)Complementclause(补语从句):Complementphrase(CP)（补语短语）Matrixclause(母句)TheabovetermsareimportantforsyntacticanalysisExampleMissHebertbelievesthatshewillwin.Cs(补语化成分/标句词)：引导补语成分的词That/if/forarecomplementizersComplementclause(补语从句):theclausesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause(由补语化成分引导的句子称为补语从句).，如shewillwinComplementphrase(CP)（补语短语）：如：thatshewillwinMatrixclause(母句)：包含补语短语的句子Note(P49)补语从句可以嵌套，其数量是没有限制的。不是所有动词都能带补语短语（如不及物动词）不是带补语短语的词都是动语，有些名词，介语可带补语短语Iwasafraidthatnobodywouldbelieveme.Shecan’tbelievethefactthatshewouldfailintheexam.Theyarguedoverwhethershehadcometoclass.Modifiers(修饰词)Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.修饰语特指中心词可表达的特征。XP---(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)H